Perioperative cognitive trajectory in adults

British Journal of Anaesthesia

Volumn 112, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 440-451

  Nadelson, M R ^a   Sanders, R D ^b   Avidan, M S ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

anesthesia recovery period; postoperative period, cognition; preoperative period

Indexed keywords

ANESTHETIC RECOVERY; CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS; CHRONIC PAIN; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CRITICAL ILLNESS; GENERAL CONDITION IMPROVEMENT; HEREDITY; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; INTRAOPERATIVE PERIOD; MOOD; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; POSTOPERATIVE COGNITIVE DECLINE; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSTOPERATIVE DELIRIUM; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

ANESTHESIA RECOVERY PERIOD; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD, COGNITION; PREOPERATIVE PERIOD;

AFFECT; COGNITION; COGNITION DISORDERS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DELIRIUM; DEMENTIA; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; PAIN, POSTOPERATIVE; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RESEARCH;

EID: 84896859098     PISSN: 00070912     EISSN: 14716771     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bja/aet420     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Bedford PD. Adverse cerebral effectsofanaesthesiaonold people. Lancet 1955; 269: 259-63
2. Newman MF, Kirchner JL, Phillips-Bute B, et al. Longitudinalassess-ment of neurocognitive function after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 395-402
3. McDonagh DL, Mathew JP, White WD, et al. Cognitivefunctionafter major noncardiac surgery, apolipoprotein E4 genotype, and bio-markers of brain injury. Anesthesiology 2010; 112: 852-9
4. Lee TA, Wolozin B, Weiss KB, Bednar MM. Assessment ofthe emergence of Alzheimer's disease following coronary artery bypass graft surgeryor percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. J Alzheimers Dis 2005; 7: 319-24
5. Eckenhoff RG, Johansson JS, Wei H, et al. Inhaled anesthetic enhancement of amyloid-beta oligomerization and cytotoxicity. Anesthesiology 2004; 101: 703-9
6. Liang G, Wang Q, Li Y, et al. A presenilin-1 mutation renders neurons vulnerable to isoflurane toxicity. Anesth Analg 2008; 106: 492-500, table of contents
7. Wei H, Liang G, Yang H, et al. The common inhalational anesthetic isoflurane induces apoptosis via activation of inosi-tol 1, 4, 5-trisphosphate receptors. Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 251-60
8. Baranov D, Bickler PE, Crosby GJ, et al. Consensus statement: First International Workshop on Anesthetics and Alzheimer's disease. Anesth Analg 2009; 108: 1627-30
9. Carnini A, Lear JD, Eckenhoff RG. Inhaled anesthetic modulation of amyloid beta(1-40) assembly and growth. Curr Alzheimer Res 2007; 4: 233-41
10. Terrando N, Monaco C, Ma D, Foxwell BM, Feldmann M, Maze M. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha triggers a cytokine cascade yielding postoperative cognitive decline. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 20518-22
11. Rodriguez-Raecke R, Niemeier A, Ihle K, Ruether W, May A. Brain gray matter decrease in chronic pain is the consequence and not the cause of pain. J Neurosci 2009; 29: 13746-50
12. Hudetz JA, Gandhi SD, Iqbal Z, Patterson KM, Pagel PS. Elevated postoperative inflammatory biomarkers are associated with short-and medium-term cognitive dysfunction after coronary artery surgery. J Anesth 2011; 25: 1-9
13. Walther K, Bendlin BB, Glisky EL, et al. Anti-inflammatory drugs reduce age-related decreases in brain volume in cognitively normal older adults. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 32: 497-505
14. Rodriguez-Raecke R, Niemeier A, Ihle K, Ruether W, May A. Structural brain changes in chronic pain reflect probably neither damage nor atrophy. PLoS One 2013; 8: e54475
15. Seminowicz DA, Wideman TH, Naso L, et al. Effective treatment of chronic low back pain in humans reverses abnormal brain anatomy and function. J Neurosci 2011; 31: 7540-50
16. Holmes C, Cunningham C, Zotova E, et al. Systemic inflammation and disease progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2009; 73: 768-74
17. Hu Z, Ou Y, Duan K, Jiang X. Inflammation:abridge between postoperative cognitive dysfunction and Alzheimer's disease. Med Hypotheses 2010; 74: 722-4
18. Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM. Alzheimer's disease. N Engl JMed 2010; 362: 329-44
19. Fidalgo AR, Cibelli M, White JP, Nagy I, Maze M, Ma D. Systemic inflammation enhances surgery-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice. Neurosci Lett 2011; 498: 63-6
20. Saczynski JS, Marcantonio ER, Quach L, et al. Cognitive trajectories after postoperative delirium. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 30-9
21. Leslie DL, Marcantonio ER, Zhang Y, Leo-Summers L, Inouye SK. One-year health care costs associated with delirium in the elderly population. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 27-32
22. Robinson TN, Raeburn CD, Tran ZV, Angles EM, Brenner LA, Moss M. Postoperative delirium in the elderly: risk factors and outcomes. Ann Surg 2009; 249: 173-8
23. Wacker P, Nunes PV, Cabrita H, Forlenza OV. Post-operative delirium is associated with poor cognitive outcome and dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2006; 21: 221-7
24. Moller JT, Cluitmans P, Rasmussen LS, et al. Long-term postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly ISPOCD1 study. ISPOCD investigators. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Lancet 1998; 351: 857-61
25. Price CC, Garvan CW, Monk TG. Type and severity of cognitive decline in older adults after noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 8-17
26. Abildstrom H, Rasmussen LS, Rentowl P, et al. Cognitive dysfunction 1-2 years after non-cardiac surgery in the elderly. ISPOCD group. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44: 1246-51
27. Selnes OA, Gottesman RF, Grega MA, Baumgartner WA, Zeger SL, McKhann GM. Cognitive and neurologic outcomes after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 250-7
28. Avidan MS, Evers AS. Reviewofclinical evidence for persistent cognitive decline or incident dementia attributable to surgery or general anesthesia. J Alzheimers Dis 2011; 24: 201-16
29. Avidan MS, Searleman AC, Storandt M, et al. Long-term cognitive decline in older subjects was not attributable to noncardiac surgery or major illness. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: 964-70
30. Stockton P, Cohen-Mansfield J, Billig N. Mental status change in older surgical patients. Cognition, depression, and other co-morbidity. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000; 8: 40-6
31. Farrag AK, Khedr EM, Abdel-Aleem H, Rageh TA. Effect of surgical menopause on cognitive functions. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2002; 13: 193-8
32. Gilberstadt H, Aberwald R, Crosbie S, Schuell H, Jimenez E. Effect of surgeryonpsychological andsocialfunctioninginelderlypatients. Arch Intern Med 1968; 122: 109-15
33. Goldstein MZ, Fogel BS, Young BL. Effect of elective surgery under general anesthesia on mental status variables in elderly women and men: 10-month follow-up. Int Psychogeriatr 1996; 8: 135-49
34. Hlatky MA, Bacon C, Boothroyd D, et al. Cognitive function 5 years after randomization to coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Circulation 1997; 96: II-11-4; discussion II-5
35. Selnes OA, Grega MA, Bailey MM, et al. Neurocognitive outcomes 3 years after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a controlled study. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 84: 1885-96
36. Selnes OA, Grega MA, Bailey MM, et al. Cognition 6 years after surgical or medical therapy for coronary artery disease. Ann Neurol 2008; 63: 581-90
37. Selnes OA, Grega MA, Bailey MM, et al. Do management strategies for coronary artery disease influence 6-year cognitive outcomes? Ann Thorac Surg 2009; 88: 445-54
38. Shroyer AL, Grover FL, Hattler B, et al. On-pump versus off-pump coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1827-37
39. Silbert BS, Scott DA, Evered LA, et al. A comparison of the effect of high-and low-dose fentanyl on the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction after coronary artery bypass surgery in the elderly. Anesthesiology 2006; 104: 1137-45
40. Sweet JJ, Finnin E, Wolfe PL, et al. Absenceofcognitive decline one year after coronary bypass surgery: comparison to nonsurgical and healthy controls. Ann Thorac Surg 2008; 85: 1571-8
41. van Dijk D, Moons KG, Nathoe HM, et al. Cognitive outcomes five years after not undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2008; 85: 60-4
42. Wahrborg P, Booth JE, Clayton T, et al. Neuropsychological outcome after percutaneous coronary intervention or coronary artery bypass grafting: results from the Stent or Surgery (SoS) Trial. Circulation 2004; 110: 3411-7
43. Williams-Russo P, Sharrock NE, Mattis S, Szatrowski TP, Charlson ME. Cognitive effects after epidural vs general anesthesia in older adults. A randomized trial. JAMA 1995; 274: 44-50
44. Zimpfer D, Czerny M, Vogt F, et al. Neurocognitive deficit following coronary artery bypass grafting: a prospective study of surgical patients and nonsurgical controls. Ann Thorac Surg 2004; 78: 513-8; discussion 8-9
45. Rasmussen LS, Siersma VD, Ispocd G. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction: true deterioration versus random variation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2004; 48: 1137-43
46. Van Dijk D, Jansen EW, Hijman R, et al. Cognitive outcome after off-pump and on-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a randomized trial. JAMA 2002; 287: 1405-12
47. Cohen DJ, Van Hout B, Serruys PW, et al. Quality of life after PCI with drug-eluting stents or coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1016-26
48. Avidan MS, Benzinger TL. Surgery and the plastic brain. Anesthesi-ology 2012; 116: 510-2
49. Mahncke HW, Bronstone A, Merzenich MM. Brain plasticity and functional losses in the aged: scientific bases for a novel intervention. Prog Brain Res 2006; 157: 81-109
50. Mahncke HW, Connor BB, Appelman J, et al. Memory enhance- mentinhealthyolderadultsusingabrain plasticity-basedtraining program: a randomized, controlled study. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103: 12523-8
51. Bruce KM, Yelland GW, Smith JA, Robinson SR. Recovery of cognitive function after coronary artery bypass graft operations. Ann Thorac Surg 2013; 95: 1306-13
52. Ghogawala Z, Amin-Hanjani S, Curran J, et al. The effect of carotid endarterectomy on cerebral blood flow and cognitive function. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2013; 22: 1029-37
53. Kline RP, Pirraglia E, Cheng H, et al. Surgery and brain atrophy in cognitively normal elderly subjects and subjects diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment. Anesthesiology 2012; 116: 603-12
54. Newman S, Stygall J, Hirani S, Shaefi S, Maze M. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction after noncardiac surgery: a systematic review. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 572-90
55. Deiner S, Silverstein JH. Postoperative delirium and cognitive dysfunction. Br J Anaesth 2009; 103: i41-6
56. Rudolph JL, Schreiber KA, Culley DJ, et al. Measurement of post-operativecognitive dysfunctionaftercardiac surgery:asystematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2010; 54: 663-77
57. Krenk L, Rasmussen LS, Kehlet H. New insights into the pathophysiology of postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2010; 54: 951-6
58. Mason SE, Noel-Storr A, Ritchie CW. The impact of general and regional anesthesia on the incidence of post-operative cognitive dysfunction and post-operative delirium: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 22: 67-79
59. Vanderweyde T, Bednar MM, Forman SA, Wolozin B. Iatrogenic risk factors for Alzheimer 's disease: surgery and anesthesia. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 22: 91-104
60. Hudson AE, Hemmings HC Jr. Are anaesthetics toxic to the brain? Br J Anaesth 2011; 107: 30-7
61. Monk TG, Price CC. Postoperative cognitive disorders. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011; 17: 376-81
62. Silbert B, Evered L, Scott DA. Cognitive decline in the elderly: is anaesthesia implicated? Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2011; 25: 379-93
63. Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Absalom AR, Blomgren K, et al. Anaesthetic neurotoxicity and neuroplasticity: an expert group report and statement based on the BJA Salzburg Seminar. Br J Anaesth 2013; 111: 143-51
64. Singh-Manoux A, Kivimaki M, Glymour MM, et al. Timingofonsetof cognitive decline: results from Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Br Med J 2012; 344: d7622
65. Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, et al. Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet 2005; 366: 2112-7
66. 2012 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2012; 8: 131-68
67. Thies W, Bleiler L, Alzheimer's A. 2013 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2013; 9: 208-45
68. Hebert LE, Weuve J, Scherr PA, Evans DA. Alzheimer diseasein the United States (2010-2050) estimated using the 2010 census. Neurology 2013; 80: 1778-83
69. Hopkins RO, Gale SD, Weaver LK. Brain atrophy and cognitive impairment in survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Brain Inj 2006; 20: 263-71
70. Guerra C, Linde-Zwirble WT, Wunsch H. Risk factors for dementia after critical illness in elderly medicare beneficiaries. Crit Care 2012; 16: R233
71. Qiu C, Kivipelto M, von Strauss E. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease: occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2009; 11: 111-28
72. Keizer AM, Hijman R, Kalkman CJ, Kahn RS, van Dijk D. The incidence of cognitive decline after (not) undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: the impact of a controlled definition. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2005; 49: 1232-5
73. Evered L, Scott DA, Silbert B, Maruff P. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction is independent of type of surgery and anesthetic. Anesth Analg 2011; 112: 1179-85
74. Radtke FM, Franck M, Herbig TS, et al. Incidence and risk factors for cognitive dysfunction in patients with severe systemic disease. J Int Med Res 2012; 40: 612-20
75. Whitlock EL, Vannucci A, Avidan MS. Postoperative delirium. Minerva Anestesiol 2011; 77: 448-56
76. Novak V, Hajjar I. The relationship between blood pressure and cognitive function. Nat Rev Cardiol 2010; 7: 686-98
77. Steinmetz J, Christensen KB, Lund T, Lohse N, Rasmussen LS, Group I. Long-term consequences of postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Anesthesiology 2009; 110: 548-55
78. Monk TG, Weldon BC, Garvan CW, et al. Predictors of cognitive dysfunction after major noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 18-30
79. Ancelin ML, de Roquefeuil G, Scali J, et al. Long-term postoperative cognitive declineinthe elderly: theeffectsofanesthesia type, apolipoprotein E genotype, and clinical antecedents. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 22(Suppl. 3): 105-13
80. Ballard C, Jones E, Gauge N, et al. Optimised anaesthesiatoreduce postoperative cognitive decline (POCD) in older patients undergoing elective surgery, a randomised controlled trial. PloS One 2012; 7: e37410
81. McKhann GM, Grega MA, Borowicz LM Jr, et al. Is there cognitive decline 1 year after CABG? Comparison with surgical and non-surgical controls. Neurology 2005; 65: 991-9
82. Cormack F, Shipolini A, Awad WI, et al. Ameta-analysisofcognitive outcome following coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36: 2118-29
83. Murkin JM, Newman SP, Stump DA, Blumenthal JA. Statement of consensus on assessment of neurobehavioral outcomes after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1995; 59: 1289-95
84. Kennedy ED, Choy KC, Alston RP, et al. Cognitive outcome after on-and off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2013; 27: 253-65
85. Rasmussen LS, Steentoft A, Rasmussen H, Kristensen PA, Moller JT. Benzodiazepines and postoperative cognitive dysfunction in the elderly. ISPOCD Group. International Study of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction. Br J Anaesth 1999; 83: 585-9
86. Mandal PK, Pettegrew JW, McKeag DW, Mandal R. Alzheimer's disease: halothane induces Abeta peptide to oligomeric form-solution NMR studies. Neurochem Res 2006; 31: 883-90
87. Palotas M, Palotas A, Bjelik A, et al. Effect of general anesthetics on amyloid precursor protein and mRNA levelsinthe rat brain. Neuro-chem Res 2005; 30: 1021-6
88. Planel E, Richter KE, Nolan CE, et al. Anesthesia leads totau hyper-phosphorylation through inhibition of phosphatase activity by hypothermia. J Neurosci 2007; 27: 3090-7
89. Xie Z, Culley DJ, Dong Y, et al. The common inhalation anesthetic isoflurane induces caspase activation and increases amyloid beta-protein level in vivo. Ann Neurol 2008; 64: 618-27
90. Steinmetz J, Siersma V, Kessing LV, Rasmussen LS, the IG. Is postoperative cognitive dysfunction a risk factor for dementia? A cohort follow-up study. Br J Anaesth 2013; 110: i92-7
91. Seitz DP, Shah PS, Herrmann N, Beyene J, Siddiqui N. Exposure to general anesthesia and risk of Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr 2011; 11: 83
92. Sprung J, Jankowski CJ, Roberts RO, et al. Anesthesia and incident dementia: a population-based, nested, case-control study. Mayo Clin Proc 2013; 88: 552-61
93. Mutch WA, Fransoo RR, Campbell BI, Chateau DG, Sirski M, Warrian RK. Dementia and depression with ischemic heart disease: a population-based longitudinal study comparing inter-ventional approaches to medical management. PLoS One 2011; 6: e17457
94. Chen CW, Lin CC, Chen KB, Kuo YC, Li CY, Chung CJ. Increased riskof dementiain people with previous exposuretogeneral anesthesia: a nationwide population-based case-control study. Alzheimers Dement 2013; pii: S1552-5260(13)02426-6
95. Chen PL, Yang CW, Tseng YK, et al. Riskofdementia afteranaesthe-sia and surgery. Br J Psychiatry 2013 Advance Access published on July 25, 2013, doi: 10. 1192/bjp. bp. 112. 119610
96. Sztark F, Le Goff M, André D, Ritchie K, Dartigues JF, Helmer C. Ex-posureto general anaesthesia could increase the riskofdementia in elderly. Paper presented at: Euroanaesthesia 2013 9th Annual Meeting of the European Society of Anaesthesiology, 1-4 June, Barcelona, Spain, 2013
97. Sprung J, Jankowski CJ, Roberts RO, et al. Anesthesia and incident dementia: a population-based, nested, case-control study. Mayo Clin Proc 2013; 88: 552-61
98. Bateman RJ, Xiong C, Benzinger TL, et al. Clinical and biomarker changes in dominantly inherited Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 795-804
99. Abildstrom H, Christiansen M, Siersma VD, Rasmussen LS, Investigators I. Apolipoprotein E genotype and cognitive dysfunction after noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 2004; 101: 855-61
100. Bryson GL, Wyand A, Wozny D, Rees L, Taljaard M, Nathan H. Apro-spective cohort study evaluating associations among delirium, postoperative cognitive dysfunction, and apolipoprotein E genotype following open aortic repair. Can J Anaesth 2011; 58: 246-55
101. Bekker A, Lee C, de Santi S, et al. Does mild cognitive impairment increase the risk of developing postoperative cognitive dysfunction? Am J Surg 2010; 199: 782-8
102. Terrando N, Eriksson LI, Ryu JK, et al. Resolving postoperative neu-roinflammation and cognitive decline. Ann Neurol 2011; 70: 986-95
103. Dimopoulou I, Armaganidis A, Douka E, et al. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) and interleukin-10 are crucial mediators inpost- operativesystemicinflammatoryresponseanddetermine the occurrence of complications after major abdominal surgery. Cytokine 2007; 37: 55-61
104. de Rooij SE, van Munster BC, Korevaar JC, Levi M. Cytokines and acute phase response in delirium. J Psychosom Res 2007; 62: 521-5
105. Adamis D, Lunn M, Martin FC, et al. Cytokines and IGF-I in delirious and non-delirious acutely ill older medical inpatients. Age Ageing 2009; 38: 326-32; discussion 251
106. Griffin WS. Neuroinflammatory cytokine signaling and Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 770-1
107. Lennard TW, Shenton BK, Borzotta A, et al. The influence of surgi-caloperationsoncomponentsofthehuman immune system. Br J Surg 1985; 72: 771-6
108. Roumen RM, van Meurs PA, Kuypers HH, Kraak WA, Sauerwein RW. Serum interleukin-6 and C reactive protein responses in patients after laparoscopic or conventional cholecystectomy. Eur J Surg 1992; 158: 541-4
109. Cibelli M, Fidalgo AR, Terrando N, et al. Role of interleukin-1beta in postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Ann Neurol 2010; 68: 360-8
110. Cao XZ, Ma H, Wang JK, et al. Postoperative cognitive deficits and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus triggered by surgical traumaareexacerbatedinagedrats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010; 34: 1426-32
111. Parolari A, Camera M, Alamanni F, et al. Systemic inflammation after on-pump and off-pump coronary bypass surgery: a one-month follow-up. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 84: 823-8
112. Borgermann J, Scheubel RJ, Simm A, Silber RE, Friedrich I. Inflammatory response in on-versus off-pump myocardial revasculari-zation: is ECC really the culprit? Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007; 55: 473-80
113. Burkhart CS, Dell-Kuster S, Gamberini M, et al. Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2010; 24: 555-9
114. Rudolph JL, Ramlawi B, Kuchel GA, et al. Chemokines are associated with delirium after cardiac surgery. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63: 184-9
115. Hudetz JA, Patterson KM, Iqbal Z, et al. Ketamine attenuates delirium after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2009; 23: 651-7
116. Cerejeira J, Nogueira V, Luis P, Vaz-Serra A, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB. The cholinergic system and inflammation: common pathways in delirium pathophysiology. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012; 60: 669-75
117. Feng X, Degos V, Koch LG, et al. Surgery results in exaggerated and persistent cognitive decline in a rat model of the metabolic syndrome. Anesthesiology 2013; 118: 1098-105
118. Hudetz JA, Patterson KM, Amole O, Riley AV, Pagel PS. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction after noncardiac surgery: effects of metabolic syndrome. J Anesth 2011; 25: 337-44
119. Su X, Feng X, Terrando N, et al. Dysfunction of inflammation-resolving pathways is associated with exaggerated postoperative cognitive decline in a rat model of the metabolic syndrome. Mol Med 2012; 18:1481-90
120. May A. Chronic pain may change the structure of the brain. Pain 2008; 137: 7-15
121. Bruce AJ, Ritchie CW, Blizard R, Lai R, Raven P. The incidence of delirium associated with orthopedic surgery: a meta-analytic review. Int Psychogeriatr 2007; 19:197-214
122. Nie H, Zhao B, Zhang YQ, Jiang YH, Yang YX. Pain and cognitive dysfunction are the risk factors of delirium in elderly hip fracture Chinese patients. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2012; 54: e172-4
123. Morrison RS, Magaziner J, Gilbert M, et al. Relationship between pain and opioid analgesics on the development of delirium following hip fracture. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003; 58: 76-81
124. Lynch EP, Lazor MA, Gellis JE, Orav J, Goldman L, Marcantonio ER. The impact of postoperative pain on the development of postoperative delirium. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 781-5
125. Ethgen O, Bruyere O, Richy F, Dardennes C, Reginster JY. Health-related quality of life in total hip and total knee arthroplasty. A qualitative and systematic review of the literature. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004; 86-A: 963-74
126. Guay J. General anaesthesia does not contribute to long-term post-operative cognitive dysfunction in adults: a meta-analysis. Indian J Anaesth 2011; 55: 358-63
127. Siepe M, Pfeiffer T, Gieringer A, et al. Increased systemic perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary bypass is associated with less early postoperative cognitive dysfunction and delirium. Eur J CardiothoracSurg 2011; 40: 200-7
128. Mrkobrada M, Hill MD, Chan MT, et al. The Neurovision Pilot Study: non-cardiac surgery carries a significant risk of acute covert stroke. Stroke 2013; 44: ATMP9
129. Slater JP, Guarino T, Stack J, et al. Cerebral oxygen desaturation predicts cognitive decline and longer hospital stay after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2009; 87: 36-44; discussion-5
130. Schoen J, Husemann L, Tiemeyer C, et al. Cognitive function after sevoflurane vs propofol-based anaesthesia for on-pump cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Anaesth 2011; 106: 840-50
131. Zimpfer D, Wieselthaler G, Czerny M, et al. Neurocognitive function in patients with ventricular assist devices: a comparison of pulsatile and continuous blood flow devices. ASAIO J 2006; 52: 24-7
132. Petrucci RJ, Rogers JG, Blue L, et al. Neurocognitive function in destination therapy patients receiving continuous-flow vs pulsatile-flow left ventricular assist device support. J Heart Lung Transplant 2012; 31: 27-36
133. Petrucci RJ, Wright S, Naka Y, et al. Neurocognitive assessments in advanced heart failure patients receiving continuous-flow left ventricular assist devices. J Heart Lung Transplant 2009; 28:542-9
134. Saito H, Ogasawara K, Nishimoto H, et al. Postoperative changes in cerebral metabolites associated with cognitive improvement and impairment after carotid endarterectomy: a 3T Proton MR spectroscopy study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2013; 34: 976-82
135. De Rango P, Caso V, Leys D, Paciaroni M, Lenti M, Cao P. The role of carotid artery stenting and carotid endarterectomy in cognitive performance: a systematic review. Stroke 2008; 39: 3116-27
136. Grunwald IQ, Papanagiotou P, Reith W, et al. Influence of carotid artery stenting on cognitive function. Neuroradiology 2010; 52: 61-6
137. Mendiz OA, Sposato LA, Fabbro N, et al. Improvementin executive function after unilateral carotid artery stenting for severe asymptomatic stenosis. J Neurosurg 2012; 116: 179-84
138. Xu G, Liu X, Meyer JS, Yin Q, Zhang R. Cognitive performance after carotid angioplasty and stenting with brain protection devices. Neurol Res 2007; 29: 251-5
139. Hudetz JA, Patterson KM, Byrne AJ, Pagel PS, Warltier DC. Postoperative delirium is associated with postoperative cognitive dysfunction at one week after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. Psychol Rep 2009; 105: 921-32
140. Rudolph JL, Marcantonio ER, Culley DJ, et al. Delirium is associated with early postoperativecognitive dysfunction. Anaesthesia 2008; 63: 941-7
141. Jankowski CJ, Trenerry MR, Cook DJ, et al. Cognitive and functional predictors and sequelae of postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective joint arthroplasty. Anesth Analg 2011; 112: 1186-93
142. Bickel H, Gradinger R, Kochs E, Forstl H. High risk of cognitive and functional decline after postoperative delirium. A three-year prospective study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2008; 26: 26-31
143. Kat MG, Vreeswijk R, de Jonghe JF, et al. Long-term cognitive outcome of delirium in elderly hip surgery patients. A prospective matched controlled study over two and a half years. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2008; 26: 1-8
144. Gunther ML, Morandi A, Krauskopf E, et al. The association between brain volumes, delirium duration, and cognitive outcomes in intensive care unit survivors: the VISIONS cohort magnetic resonance imaging study. Crit Care Med 2012; 40: 2022-32
145. Ehlenbach WJ, Hough CL, Crane PK, et al. Association between acute care and critical illness hospitalization and cognitive function in older adults. JAMA 2010; 303: 763-70
146. Inouye SK, Zhang Y, Han L, Leo-Summers L, Jones R, Marcantonio E. Recoverable cognitive dysfunction at hospital admission in older persons during acute illness. J Gen Intern Med 2006; 21: 1276-81
147. Jackson JC, Hopkins RO, Miller RR, Gordon SM, Wheeler AP, Ely EW. Acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, and cognitive decline: a review and case study. South Med J 2009; 102: 1150-7
148. Torgersen J, Hole JF, Kvale R, Wentzel-Larsen T, Flaatten H. Cognitive impairments after critical illness. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2011; 55: 1044-51
149. Sapolsky RM. Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 1996; 273: 749-50
150. Kizilbash AH, Vanderploeg RD, Curtiss G. The effects of depression and anxiety on memory performance. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2002; 17: 57-67
151. Jokinen JJ, Hippelainen MJ, Turpeinen AK, Pitkanen O, Hartikainen JE. Health-related quality of life after coronary artery bypass grafting: a review of randomized controlled trials. J Card Surg 2010; 25: 309-17