Envisioning black colleges: A history of the United Negro College Fund

Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-269

  Gasman, Marybeth ^a  

^a NONE

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References (660)

1. Lea A. Williams, "The United Negro College Fund: Its Growth and Development" (Ph. D. diss., Columbia University, 1977), 1.
2. Katrina Sanders-Cassell, "Intelligent and Effective Direction": The Fisk University Race Relations Institute and the Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Peter Lang, 2005), 5.
3. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1944).
4. John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day. The Generation before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York: Knopf, 1994).
5. Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork: Charles Hamilton Houston and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983).
6. Myrdal, An American Dilemma.
7. Joe William Trotter Jr., "From a Raw Deal to a New Deal?" in A History of African Americans, from 1880, ed. Robin D. G. Kelley and Earl Lewis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
8. August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).
9. Sanders-Cassell, "Intelligent and Effective Direction", 5.
10. Myrdal, An American Dilemma;
11. Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day.
12. Sanders-Cassell, "Intelligent and Effective Direction", 9.
13. Penny M. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire. Black Americans and Anticolonialism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).
14. Kelley and Lewis, eds., History of African Americans, 174.
15. Walter White, "Kinship of Colored Peoples: People, Politics, and Places", Chicago Defender, 3 March 1945;
16. Walter White, A Rising Wind (Westport, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1971), 144.
17. For a full discussion of the impact of World War II on African American politics, see Von Eschen, Race Against Empire.
18. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 409.
19. Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day;
20. Kelley and Lewis, eds., History of African Americans.
21. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 770.
22. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folks (New York: Penguin Classics, 1996).
23. Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Their Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005).
24. According to Heather A. Williams's Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005)
25. the following states "prohibited teaching enslaved and/or free black people": Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia (p. 216). Williams was not able to find such statutes in Kentucky, Maryland, Arkansas, Texas, Florida, Delaware, and Tennessee.
26. For additional information, please see Williams's chapter 1, "In Secret Places. Acquiring Literacy in Slave Communities."
27. Ronald Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks and Reconstruction: Freedmen's Education, 1862-1975 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980).
28. Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (1962; reprint, with an introductory essay and supplementary bibliography by John R. Thelin, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990).
29. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).
30. Ralph Christy and Ralph Williamson, A Century of Service: Land Grant Colleges and Universities, 1890-1990 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1992);
31. Chris Johnston, "The 1890 Morrill Land-Grant College Act and the African-American Civil Rights Movement", http://www.tandl.vt.edu/ socialstudies/hicks/cjohnsto/1890.htm.
32. Anderson, Education of Blacks;
33. William Watkins, White Architects of Black Education: Power and Ideology in America, 1865-1954 (New York: Teachers College Press, 2001).
34. Anderson, Education of Blacks;
35. Watkins, White Architects;
36. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919 (New York: Henry Holt, 1994).
37. Robert Engs, Educating the Disfranchised and Disinherited: Samuel Chapman Armstrong and Hampton Institute (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999).
38. It should be noted that the industrial philanthropists were not entirely opposed to the liberal arts curriculum. For a nuanced discussion of their interests, see Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South.
39. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois.
40. Anderson, Education of Blacks.
41. For more information, see Marcia Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith: An Autobiography of Frederick D. Patterson (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991).
42. Robert Russa Moton was an African American educator with a degree from the Hampton Institute (1890). He was the commandant of the Hampton Institute between 1890 and 1915, and, upon Booker T. Washington's death in 1915, he assumed the position of principal (and later president) of the Tuskegee Institute. Moton held this position until 1935. During his tenure at Tuskegee, the institution was raised to national and international prominence in the area of race relations.
43. See Robert Russa Moton, Finding a Way Out: An Autobiography (Maryland: McGrath Publishing Company, 1920).
44. Marybeth Gasman, "Frederick Douglass Patterson (1901-1988), College President and Founder of the United Negro College Fund", The Encyclopedia of Philanthropy (New York: Oryx Press, 2001).
45. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 5 May 2006.
46. Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day, p. 288.
47. See also, Rayford Logan, ed., What the Negro Wants (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), p. 288.
48. Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day.
49. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 5 May 2006.
50. Scott M. Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1965), 296.
51. Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith.
52. Franklin D. Roosevelt, in Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 297.
53. Frederick D. Patterson, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, February 1981, United Negro College Fund, Columbia University Oral History Collection, No. 1331, 7 (hereafter cited as UNCF Oral History);
54. John Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980). According to John Price Jones, one of the leading fundraisers during the post-Depression era, it was typical to hear at this time "Why doesn't government do this?"
55. See Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 317.
56. Kirby, Black Americans.
57. The inequities of the Roosevelt era policies were the subject of a conference entitled "The Position of the Negro in Our National Economic Crisis", hosted by Ralph Bunch at Howard University in 1935.
58. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, p. 754.
59. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", UNCF Papers.
60. Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States.
61. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", UNCF Papers.
62. Goodson, Chronicles of Faith.
63. Patterson, interview, February 1981.
64. John D. Rockefeller created the General Education Board in 1903 with an initial pledge of $1, 000, 000. When the Board ceased its "active philanthropic" activity in 1957, it had given over $60, 000, 000 toward black education. For more information
65. see Frederick D. Patterson, "Foundation Policies in Regard to Negro Institutions of Higher Learning", Journal of Educational Sociology 32, 6(February 1959), 290-296. Julius Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund in 1917. The Fund supported the establishment of rural schools for blacks, black higher education, and many other educational and social causes. According to Patterson, "the extent of their interest [speaking of the General Education Board and the Rosenwald Fund] and the level of giving left much to be desired. For although the two foundations were among the major contributors to black colleges they made greater gifts to White colleges."
66. Frederick D. Patterson in Goodson, Chronicles of Faith, 123.
67. Walter Hoving to Contributors of the United Negro College Fund Campaign, memo, December 1944, Messers Rockefeller, III2G, box 94, folder 665, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York (hereafter cited as RAC).
68. See General Education Board papers, RAC.
69. James P. Brawley, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, March 1982, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331, 59.
70. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro College Graduate (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937).
71. Jackson Davis, General Education Board Notes, 8 March 1943, General Education Board, record group 5221-5234, series 1, sub-series 3, box 490, folder 5231, RAC.
72. See also William J. Trent Jr., "Cooperative Fund Raising for Higher Education", Journal of Negro Education 24, 1(winter 1955), 6-15.
73. Trent, "Cooperative Fund Raising." Contrary to Patterson's original intention, the UNCF has typically received less than half of its funding from the general public;the majority of its support comes from foundations, wealthy individuals, and corporations.
74. Frederick D. Patterson in Goodson, Chronicles of Faith, 65.
75. William J. Trent Jr. and Frederick D. Patterson, "Financial Support of the Private Negro College", Journal of Negro Education 27, 3, Desegregation and the Negro College (summer 1958), 398-405.
76. Williams, "The United Negro College Fund: Its Growth and Development."
77. Frederick D. Patterson, "Southern Viewpoint: Would it Not Be Wise for Some Negro Schools to Make a Joint Appeal to Public for Funds?" Pittsburgh Courier, 30 January 1943.
78. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 9, UNCF Papers.
79. Frederick D. Patterson in Goodson, Chronicles of Faith, 135.
80. Walter Hoving, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, February 1981;
81. Lindsley Kimball, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, February 1981, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
82. For more information on the fund's solicitation strategies, see record group 2, general information, reel 1511, "solicitation policy", United Negro College Fund Papers, Atlanta University Center, Atlanta, Georgia (hereafter cited as UNCF AUC Center Papers).
83. Patterson, interview February 1981.
84. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 11, UNCF Papers
85. Hollis Price, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, May 1987, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
86. Frederick D. Patterson, "Development Programs at Negro Institutions", (speech given before the Council of Presidents of the National Association of State and Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, Chicago, Illinois, 11 November 1969).
87. Jackson Davis, General Education Board notes, 17 June 1943, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5221-5234, series 1, subseries 3, box 490, folder 5231, RAC;
88. Brawley, interview.
89. Bruce Barton, William Dean Embree, and Samuel D. Leidesdorf, "A Memorandum concerning the United Negro College Fund, Inc., 1946", box 491, folder 5239, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, RAC;
90. Lindsley Kimball, "United Negro College Fund, Inc., Outline Study", Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 664A, RAC.
91. Hoving, to Contributors, December 1944.
92. Price, interview, February 1981.
93. Frederick D. Patterson to Jackson Davis, 28 May 1943, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, box 490, folder 5231, RAC.
94. Frederick D. Patterson in Goodson, Chronicles of Faith, 131.
95. William J. Trent Jr., interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, February 1981, UNCF Oral History, 3.
96. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 17, UNCF Papers. Please note that an endowment is comprised of the funds that a college holds in perpetuity to support the institution as a whole. Endowment monies are typically not spent by the institution.
97. Williams, "Growth and Development."
98. See also UNCF minutes, Executive Committee Meeting, 1 October 1945, 6. Please note that the resulting 25 percent of the funds collected were used for operation of the Fund itself and special initiatives designed to support the member colleges.
99. Patterson, interview, February 1981, 18.
100. Frederick D. Patterson in Goodson, Chronicles of Faith, 142.
101. Patterson, interview, February 1981, 83.
102. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", UNCF Papers.
103. Trent, interview, February 1981.
104. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 25, UNCF Papers.
105. Patterson, interview, February 1981;
106. Lindsley Kimball, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, March 1981, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
107. Betty Stebman, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, April 1982, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331, 12.
108. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", UNCF Papers.
109. An earlier version of this chapter was published as Marybeth Gasman, "A Word for Every Occasion: Appeals by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. to White Donors on Behalf of the United Negro College Fund", History of Higher Education Annual 22(2002/2003), 67-90.
110. Annual Report of the Executive Director of the Board of Directors of the UNCF, Inc., 8 September 1950, General Education Board, 5241-5250, 1, 3, box 492, folder 5243, RAC.
111. Frederick D. Patterson in Marcia Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith: An Autobiography of Frederick D. Patterson (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991);
112. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976), 77.
113. For an example of Rockefeller Jr.'s influence, see a letter that Prescott S. Bush wrote to him in 1946: "As a matter of fact, your original approval of the project when it started influenced me in doing something about it. I know how thoroughly you look into these important charitable matters and your endorsement really means something to me." RAC.
114. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers.
115. Patterson in Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith, 129.
116. Kimball, Outline Study, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 664A, RAC.
117. Trent, "Cooperative Fund Raising."
118. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);
119. Eric Anderson and Alfred Moss, Dangerous Donations: Northern Philanthropy and Southern Education (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999). In 1901, Ogden's guests on the "millionaire's special" included William H. Baldwin Jr. (president of the Long Island Railroad) and George F. Peabody (Wall Street businessman).
120. Anderson and Moss, Dangerous Donations, 43.
121. Frederick Taylor Gates (1853-1929) was a Baptist minister who from 1891 served as a trusted adviser to John D. Rockefeller in both his charitable and business endeavors.
122. For more information, please see http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/ ftg.html. Wallace Buttrick (1853-1926) was a Baptist minister who served as secretary (1902-1917), president (1917-1923), and chairman (1923-1926) of the General Education Board, and as a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation (1917-1926).
123. For more information, please see http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/ rf-wb.html.
124. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers.
125. Ron Chernow, Titan (New York: Vintage Books, 1998).
126. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, 132;
127. Cary Reich, The Life of Nelson A. Rockefeller: Worlds to Conquer, 1908-1958 (New York: Doubleday, 1996).
128. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Biographical Notes, www.rockefeller.edu/ archive, accessed March 13, 2003, RAC.
129. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, 157.
130. Anderson, Education of Blacks, 256-257.
131. Also see John D. Rockefeller Jr.' s radio platter on the United Negro College Fund, Inc., 23 January 1948, box 96, folder 660, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, RAC.
132. John D. Rockefeller, NBC broadcast transcript, 26 May 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 660, RAC.
133. After the Civil War, some missionary and industrial philanthropists felt that it was essential to assist blacks so as to pre-empt them from becoming a menace in society. See Anderson, Education of Blacks.
134. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Fowler McCormick, 6 February 1952, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 95, folder 658, RAC.
135. Anderson, Education of Blacks.
136. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 72, UNCF Papers.
137. When Julius Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund, he called for its termination in 1948.
138. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to William Nelson Cromwell, 13 April 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 97, folder 665.
139. Patterson in Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith, 137.
140. Patterson in Goodson, ed., Chronicles of Faith, 131.
141. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to J. R. Warwick, 20 November 1950, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 52, folder 657, RAC. This idea is present in most letters authored by Rockefeller Jr. or sent out under his signature.
142. Stebman, interview, 26-27.
143. Remarks of John D. Rockefeller Jr. in a broadcast over NBC of the Negro College Fund Campaign, 26 March 1944, Messrs Rockefeller, III 2G, box 96, folder 660, RAC.
144. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to J. Howard Pew, 23 July 1946, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 97, folder 665, RAC.
145. John D. Rockefeller Jr., Notes for speech, 12 June 1945, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 661, RAC.
146. Kimball, Outline Study.
147. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Bayard Pope, 28 August 1950, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 95, folder 658A, RAC.
148. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Bernard M. Baruch, 1 February 1951, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 95, folder 656A, RAC.
149. Many letters to industry leaders contain the phrase "insurance against subversive influences." They are located in the Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, RAC.
150. John D. Rockefeller Jr., I Believe, 8 July 1941, accessed 11 April 2002 from www. Rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/jdrjrbio.html.
151. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 45, UNCF Papers.
152. See also Patrick J. Gilpin and Marybeth Gasman, Charles S. Johnson. Leadership Behind the Veil in the Age of Jim Crow (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003).
153. also see, John D. Rockefeller Jr., NBC radio address transcript, 1951, Messrs Rockefeller, III 2G, box 95, folder 459, RAC.
154. "Thirty-two Steps Forward to a Better America", 1945, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, Series 1, sub-series 3, Box 491, folder 5238, RAC.
155. "America is Free to Choose", 1944, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, box 491, folder 5338, RAC.
156. "A Significant Adventure", [1950], General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, box 491, folder 5240, RAC.
157. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2000).
158. Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998);
159. John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York: Knopf, 1994);
160. Marybeth Gasman, "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University During Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946-1956)", American Educational Research Journal 36, 4 (winter 1999);
161. Ellen Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986);
162. Cedric Belfrage, The American Inquisition, 1945-1960 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973);
163. David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978);
164. Griffen Fariello, Red Scare: Memories of the American Inquisition. An Oral History (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1995).
165. "National Mobilization of Resources", April 1952 General Education Board Papers, III 2G, box 492, folder 5241, RAC.
166. Kimball, interview, 16-18.
167. Patterson, interview, February 1981, 78.
168. William J. Trent Jr., interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, October 1981, UNCF Oral History, 60.
169. Frederick D. Patterson, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, August 1980, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
170. Mobilizing Board [Harvey S. Firestone Jr., Devereux C. Josephs, Richard K. Mellon, John D. Rockefeller Jr., Alfred P. Sloan Jr., Robert E. Wilson, and Robert W. Woodruff] to Frank Abrams, 30 July 1952, Messrs Rockefeller, III 2G, box 96, folder 664, RAC.
171. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to industry leaders of Buffalo, New York, 4 May 1959, Messrs Rockefeller, III 2G, box 95, folder 659A, RAC.
172. See also, John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Ralph Hayes, 27 July 1944 and 5 August 1946;
173. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Thomas A. Morgan, 7 February 1945, Messrs Rockefeller, III 2G, box 97, folder 667, RAC.
174. "America is Free to Choose", 1944, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, box 491, folder 5338, RAC.
175. Stebman, interview, 75.
176. Charles V. Willie and Ronald R. Edmonds, Black Colleges in America. Challenge, Development, and Survival (New York: Teachers College Press, 1978), 91;
177. Anderson, Education of Blacks, 274;
178. Daniel C. Thompson, Private Black Colleges at the Crossroads (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1973).
179. Henry Drewry and Humphrey Doermann, Stand and Prosper: Private Black Colleges and their Students (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 92.
180. "Appraisal of a Venture. The United Negro College Fund's First Fifteen Years, 1944-1959", John D. Rockefeller Jr. papers, RAC.
181. Goodson, Chronicles of Faith. While at Tuskegee, Patterson initiated many new programs related to science and technology including, commercial dietetics (1935), commercial aviation (1935), veterinary medicine (1935) and engineering (1948).
182. Anderson, Education of Blacks.
183. See chapter entitled, "The Apostles of Liberal Education. "
184. Anderson, Education of Blacks;
185. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
186. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Governor Broughton, 28 February 1945, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, RAC.
187. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Colgate W. Darden, 5 December 1946, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 94, folder 655B, RAC.
188. Rockefeller Jr. to Darden, 5 December 1946, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 94, folder 655B, RAC.
189. Rockefeller Jr., Notes for speech, 12 June 1945, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 661, RAC. For a thorough depiction of southern gradualism
190. see Adam Fairclough, "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro... Seems... Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History 87, 1 (2000).
191. Benjamin Mays, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, May 1987, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331;
192. Patterson, interview, August 1980.
193. Kimball, interview, March 1981, 36.
194. David Garrow, Philanthropy and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society, 1987).
195. Stebman, interview, 54.
196. Kimball, interview, 37.
197. Mays, interview, 21.
198. Kimball, interview, 17-18.
199. Stebman, interview, 29.
200. William J. Trent Jr., interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, November 1980, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
201. "27 Negro Colleges in $1, 500, 000 Drive", The New York Times, 4 May 1944, 36.
202. Buford G. Lincoln to John D. Rockefeller Jr., 3 June 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 6620, RAC.
203. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Buford G. Lincoln, 22 June 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 6620, RAC.
204. Rockefeller Jr. to Lincoln, 22 June 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 6620, RAC.
205. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 37, UNCF Papers.
206. Rockefeller Jr. to Lincoln, 22 June 1944, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 6620, RAC. Rockefeller received similar letters from William J. Woody from Savannah, Georgia and W. Carson Adams of Coal and Coke, Birmingham, Alabama, located in Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 6620, RAC.
207. Kenneth W. Goings, Mammy and Uncles Moses: Black Collectibles and American Stereotyping (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
208. "America is Free to Choose", 1944, General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, series 1, sub-series 3, box 491, folder 5338, RAC.
209. "The Mobilizer", June 1953, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 664, RAC.
210. Kimball, interview, 31.
211. Cutlip, Fundraising in the United States.
212. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers.
213. Aristotle, Rhetoric, trans. W. Rhys Roberts (New York: Modern Library, 1984).
214. Kathleen D. McCarthy, ed., Lady Bountiful Revisited: Women, Philanthropy, and Power (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
215. McCarthy, Lady Bountiful.
216. Sondra Shaw and Martha Taylor, eds., Reinventing Fundraising: Realizing the Potential of Women's Philanthropy (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995);
217. Andrea Walton, ed., Women and Philanthropy in Education (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).
218. See also Teresa Odendahl, Women and Philanthropy: Gender and Career Patterns (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988);
219. Kathleen D. McCarthy, Women, Philanthropy, and Civil Society (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001);
220. Sarah Deutsch, "Learning to Talk More Like a Man: Boston Women's Class Bridging Organizations, 1870-1940", The American Historical Review 97, 2(April 1992), 379-404;
221. Maureen A. Flanagan, "Gender and Urban Political Reform: The City Club and the Woman's City Club of Chicago in the Progressive Era", The American Historical Review 95, 4(October 1990), 1032-1050;
222. Anne M. Boylan, "Women in Groups: An Analysis of Women's Benevolent Organizations in New York and Boston, 1797-1840", The Journal of American History 71, 2(September 1974), 372-393.
223. Stebman, interview.
224. Hoving, interview.
225. "Mrs. Waddell, 63, was Civic Leader", The New York Times, 14 December 1961, 43.
226. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", 141, UNCF Papers.
227. Stebman, interview, 110.
228. Kimball, interview;
229. Patterson, interview, August 1980, 74.
230. William J. Trent Jr., interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, October 1980, UNCF Oral History Collection, No. 1331.
231. Stebman, interview,.
232. Dorothy G. Becker, "Exit Lady Bountiful: The Volunteer and the Professional Social Worker", The Social Service Review 38, 1(1964), 63-64.
233. Becker, "Exit Lady Bountiful", 71.
234. Stebman, interview, 78. Descriptions of Catherine Waddell's visits to Spelman College and her service on the Board of Trustees were used in letters sent to potential female donors.
235. See Catherine Waddell to Miss/Mrs. [generic salutation], 20 October 1948
236. and Catherine Waddell to Mrs. [generic salutation], 21 June 1948, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C., Reel 3082.
237. Stebman, interview.
238. Lynn Homan and Thomas Reilly, The Tuskegee Airmen (Columbia, S. C.: Arcadia Publishing, 1999).
239. See also Stebman, interview.
240. Stebman, interview.
241. Stebman, interview, 83.
242. "America's Town Meeting of the Air", The Jerry Lee On-Line Photo Archive at the Library of American Broadcasting, www.lib.umd.edu, control number, 56.053, 12 April 1945, accessed 21 June 2005.
243. Stebman, interview, 84.
244. In her 1948 fund-raising letters to those women who contributed the year before, Mrs. Waddall referred to segregation as obnoxious and longed for a day when "these institutions can be strengthened... when young white men and women can-if they wish... attend Hampton, Fisk, or Tuskegee and young Negroes can go to the colleges of their choice." See Catherine Waddell to Miss Tucker [sample letter], 24 September 1948, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3077. In letters to potential donors in 1949, Mrs. Waddell discussed the "weak spot" in America's vision.
245. See Catherine Waddell to Mrs. Ainslie [sample letter], 14 June 1949, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3095.
246. Chauncey Waddell to John D. Rockefeller Jr., 23 November 1947, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 94, folder 655C, RAC.
247. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to Chauncey Waddell, 11 December 1947, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 94, folder 655C, RAC.
248. Rockefeller Jr. to Waddell, 11 December 1947, Messrs Rockefeller- Education, III 2G, box 94, folder 655C, RAC.
249. Stebman, interview, 222.
250. Interestingly, the Davis Polk Law Firm was the firm of John W. Davis, who coincidentally was the same person who argued the Brown v. Board of Education case and lost it to Thurgood Marshall in 1954.
251. See Stebman, interview.
252. Stebman, interview, 92.
253. Cameron Binkley, "'No Better Heritage Than Living Trees': Women's Clubs and Early Conservation in Humboldt County", Western Historical Quarterly 33(summer 2002), 201.
254. Stebman, interview, 93.
255. Trent, interview, October 1980.
256. Becker, "Exit Lady Bountiful", 71.
257. Stebman, interview, 92-94. Although Stebman is correct in her assessment of the "elite" nature attached to lunching at Mrs. McCullough's home, there were some women who refused to attend, preferring to give to the UNCF on an anonymous basis. They were afraid to have their names associated with the UNCF.
258. See Reel 3095 for letters written by Catherine Waddell to "anonymous" donors, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division.
259. Stebman, interview, 94.
260. Beverly Gordon, Bazaars and Fair Ladies: The History of the American Fundraising Fair (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998).
261. David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).
262. Kimball, interview, 53.
263. "Mrs. Hall Park McCullough" Honorary Program copy, n. d., UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 1636. For lists of those who attended the luncheons see Reel 3091, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division.
264. Stebman, interview, 106.
265. "Lady Bountiful", Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms 2003;
266. Binkley, "No Better Heritage", 179-202;
267. Barbara Lowney, "Lady Bountiful: Margaret Crocker of Sacramento", California Historical Society Quarterly 47, 2(1968), 99-112;
268. Gregory Nosan, "Women in the Galleries: Prestige, Education, and Volunteerism at Mid-century", Museum Studies 29, 1(2003), 46-71;
269. Gordon, Bazaars and Fair Ladies.
270. Mrs. Hall Park McCullough to Mrs. [generic salutation], 8 March 1948, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3083.
271. Kimball, interview, 54-55.
272. For a more contemporary explanation of these differences, see Sondra Shaw and Martha Taylor, Reinventing Fundraising: Realizing the Potential of Women's Philanthropy (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
273. Trent, interview, October 1980.
274. Kimball, interview, 55.
275. "Greater New York Women's Division of the United Negro College Fund", 1948 Campaign, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3082, 2.
276. Kimball, interview, 57.
277. Stebman, interview, 96. The Social Register was, at one time, a book detailing who was a member of "polite society" in a given American city.
278. For example, the New York Social Register, first published in 1887, consisted largely of the descendants of English or Dutch settlers, the merchant class who had built New York City.
279. The Social Register pointedly excluded Jews and most Roman Catholics.
280. Stebman, interview, 98.
281. When interviewed in 1982, Betty Stebman noted of the event at the Colony Club, "I think if I wanted to do something like that, I'd have to go through the same thing at the Colony Club [today], because I don't think they've moved an inch since that time. I hope I'm wrong!" (p. 101).
282. Price, interview, 63.
283. See Kathleen D. McCarthy, "Women and Philanthropy: Three Strategies in an Historical Perspective", (working paper 22, Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society, City University of New York, winter 1994)
284. and David C. Hammack, Making the Nonprofit Sector in the United States: A Reader (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).
285. For a beautifully written synthesis of this perspective, see Walton, ed., "Introduction", in Women and Philanthropy in Education.
286. Vernon Jordan, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, January 1982, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331, 26-27.
287. An earlier version of this chapter was published as Marybeth Gasman, "Rhetoric vs. Reality: The Fundraising Messages of the United Negro College Fund in the Immediate Aftermath of the Brown Decision", History of Education Quarterly 44, 1(winter 2004), 70-94.
288. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 347 U. S. 483 (1954).
289. For more information on the Brown decision in the primary- and secondary-school settings, see James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001);
290. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1976);
291. Constance Baker Motley, "The Legacy of Brown v. Board of Education", Teachers College Record 96, 4(summer 1995):637-643;
292. and Charles J. Russo, J. John Harris, and Rosetta F. Sandidge, "Brown v. Board of Education at 40: A Legal History of Equal Educational Opportunity in American Public Education", Journal of Negro Education 63, 3(summer 1994):297-309.
293. Within the UNCF Papers there are countless letters between the UNCF leaders and the member college presidents detailing their immediate reaction to Brown v. Board as well as the organization's strategies for "spinning" the organizations' response in the years after the decision. When looking back at the decade after Brown, we can see the slowness of response by both the state and federal government. However, within the UNCF papers, there is a sense that the existence of black colleges, including private black colleges, must be defended.
294. Albert L. Samuels, Is Separate Unequal? Black Colleges and the Challenge to Desegregation (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2004).
295. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Education of Black People, Ten Critiques, 1906-1960, ed. Herbert Aptheker (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), 66. Du Bois originally delivered this as a speech in 1930.
296. William J. Trent Jr. to UNCF Campaign Leadership, 1954, memo entitled "Questions and Answers Concerning the Effect of the Supreme Court Decision on the UNCF and its Member Colleges", box 16, microfiche 2295, 2296, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
297. Henry Drewry and Humphrey Doermann, Stand and Prosper. Private Black Colleges and their Students (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). Although today the UNCF boasts 40 member colleges, in 1954, there were only 31. Membership in the UNCF required being a private institution with an "A" rating (assigned by the Southern Association of Negro Colleges and signifying that the institution offered a quality educational program).
298. For more detailed information, see Shuana K. Tucker, "The Early Years of the United Negro College Fund, 1943-1960", The Journal of African American History 87, 4(fall 2002), 416-432.
299. The Court's call for the dismantling of segregated schools with "all deliberate speed" actually came in the Brown II case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 349 U. S. 294 (1955).
300. Michael Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003);
301. Mark Tushet, NAACP's Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 1925-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).
302. These cases were Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, Registrar of the University of Missouri, et al., 305 U. S. 337 (1938);
303. Sipuel v. Board of Regents, 332 U. S. 631 (1948);
304. Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U. S. 629 (1950);
305. McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U. S. 637 (1950). The first case, in 1938, involved Lloyd Gaines, a black, high school valedictorian who wanted to attend the University of Missouri Law School. When the law school discovered that Gaines was black they denied his admission but offered to pay his tuition in another state. In this instance, the Court declared that states must either furnish separate and equal educational institutions within the respective state or admit blacks to the all-white institutions. In effect, Gaines called for the provision of an equal education for all of a state's residents. Although important and effective in foreshadowing the Court's future decisions, the Gaines case is not discussed in detail in this book. Taking place in 1938, six years prior to the creation of the UNCF, the case, although promising to the Fund's leadership, did not have an impact on their fund-raising strategies. The Sweatt and Sipuel cases, which offered greater hope to the Fund leadership, are discussed in the body of the chapter.
306. Plessey v. Ferguson, 163 U. S. 537 (1896).
307. Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights;
308. Tushet, NAACP's Legal Strategy Against Segregated Education.
309. Tushet, NAACP's Legal Strategy against Segregated Education.
310. Charles S. Johnson, "Some Significant Social and Educational Implications of the U. S. Supreme Court's Decisions", The Journal of Negro Education 23, 3(summer 1954), 354-371.
311. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1976).
312. Vanessa Siddle Walker provides a thorough analysis of the values of segregated schools at the elementary and secondary level in Vanessa Siddle Walker, "Valued Segregated Schools for African American Children in the South, 1935-1969: A Review of Common Themes and Characteristics", Review of Educational Research 70, 3(fall 2000):253-295.
313. See also Johnson, "Some Significant Social and Educational Implications."
314. Frederick. D. Patterson, "The Private Negro College in a Racially-Integrated System of Higher Education", The Journal of Negro Education 21, 3(summer 1952), 368.
315. John S. Lash, "The Umpteenth Crisis in Negro Higher Education", Journal of Negro Education 22, 8(November 1951), 432.
316. William J. Trent Jr. to Reuben Maury, 16 March 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers. This letter was written prior to the Brown decision.
317. William J. Trent Jr., to UNCF Leadership, n. d. [pre-Brown], memo entitled "Objectives of the United Negro College Fund", box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
318. "Feel Integration will Spur Race Colleges to Excel", Pittsburgh Courier, 15 March 1952, located in box 16, microfiche 2296, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
319. Trent, interview, 71-72.
320. Frederick D. Patterson, "Report to Friends and Contributors of the United Negro College Fund", 27 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
321. Stephen J. Wright, interview Marcia Goodson, transcript, June 1987, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
322. See also Price, interview.
323. C. H. Raullerson to William J. Trent Jr., 1 June 1954, memo entitled "Materials prepared as a result of the Supreme Court Decision", box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
324. William J. Trent Jr., "Official Statement of the United Negro College Fund Regarding the Supreme Court Decision of May 17, 1954", 1954, UNCF publication, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
325. William J. Trent Jr. to Negro Newspapers, open letter entitled "Night Letter", box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
326. Mays, interview, 29.
327. Robin D. G. Kelley and Earl Lewis, eds., To Make Our World Anew: A History of African Americans, From 1880, Volume II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 175.
328. Patterson, interview, 62.
329. Kimball, interview, 42.
330. Patterson, interview, 56.
331. Patterson, "Report to Friends and Contributors", 27 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
332. "Statement by Dr. F. D. Patterson, President and Founder of the United Negro College Fund on the Decision of the United States Supreme Court on Segregation in the Public Schools of the South", box 16, microfiche 2296, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
333. "Appraisal of a Venture. The United Negro College Fund's First Fifteen Years, 1944-1959", Messers Rockefeller, Education, III 2G, box 96, folder 661A, RAC. For graph information, see UNCF Fact Sheet, United Negro College Fund, UNCF AUC Center Papers;
334. Williams, "Growth and Development", 107.
335. For more information, see Henry Allen Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South from 1619 to the Present (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967).
336. See also James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1966)
337. and various issues of Southern School News.
338. John Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).
339. J. S. Scott Sr., [1954], "The Supreme Court Decision and the United Negro College Fund", box 13, microfiche 1875, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
340. Jones, "A History of the United Negro College Fund", UNCF Papers.
341. Scott, "The Supreme Court Decision and the United Negro College Fund."
342. Charles S. Johnson, "Next Steps in Education in the South", Phylon 15, 1(1st Quarter, 1954):7-20, 10;
343. Johnson made similar statements after the Brown decision in Johnson, "Some Significant Social and Educational Implications."
344. Albert Manley, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, May 1987, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331.
345. Press Release, Board Meeting in Atlanta, Georgia, 4 October 1954, box 16, microfiche 2296, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
346. Benjamin E. Mays, "In view of the recent Supreme Court decision, what do you consider the most effective arguments for continued support of the UNCF?" [1954], box 13, microfiche 1875, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
347. Manley, interview, 30.
348. "National Mobilization of Resources for the United Negro College Fund", 18 January 1955, Messers Rockefeller-Education, III, 2G, box 96, folder 664A, RAC.
349. See also Charles S. Johnson, The Negro College Graduate (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969);
350. Robert C. Weaver, "The Private Negro Colleges and Universities-An Appraisal", The Journal of Negro Education 29, 2(spring 1960), 113-120;
351. E. C. Harrison, "On Reorientation of College for Negroes", The Journal of Higher Education 26, 6(June 1955), 297-299, 342.
352. African American Who's Who, 1944-1960.
353. William J. Trent Jr. to UNCF Campaign Leadership, "Memorandum and Fact Sheet", 24 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
354. Trent, interview, October 1980, 65.
355. Albert L. Samuels, Is Separate Unequal? Black Colleges and the Challenge to Desegregation (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2004), 26.
356. Walter White, in Samuels, Is Separate Unequal?, 55.
357. Samuels, Is Separate Unequal?, 55.
358. Patterson, "Report to Friends and Contributors", 27 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
359. See also, Johnson, "Next Steps in Education in the South", 7-20. Johnson made similar statements after the Brown decision in Johnson, "Some Significant Social and Educational Implications."
360. Daniel C. Thompson, Private Black Colleges at the Crossroads (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1973).
361. Patterson, "Report to Friends and Contributors", 27 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
362. Trent to UNCF Campaign Leadership, "Memorandum and Fact Sheet", 24 May 1954, box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
363. See Patrick J. Gilpin and Marybeth Gasman, Charles Spurgeon Johnson. Leadership Behind the Veil (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003)
364. and Katrina Sanders, Intelligent and Effective Direction (New York: Peter Lang, 2005).
365. Joy A. Williamson, ""Quacks, Quirks, Agitators, and Communists': Private Black Colleges and the Limits of Institutional Autonomy", History of Higher Education Annual 23(2003):49-81;
366. Joy A. Williamson, "Public Black Colleges and the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi." In Higher Education and the Civil Rights Movement, edited by Peter Wallenstein (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, forthcoming). Most private predominantly white institutions were also effected by segregation laws. For example, prior to the advent of Jim Crow laws, Berea College was a biracial institution. However, nearly half a century before Brown v. Board, the institution was forced to become non-black.
367. For more information, see Shannon H. Wilson, Berea College: An Illustrated History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006).
368. See also James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1864-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).
369. Benjamin E. Mays, "Our Colleges and the Supreme Court Decision", 20 March 1955, box 22, microfiche 3218, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
370. See Benjamin E. Mays speeches in the UNCF Papers at the Robert Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, Atlanta, Georgia.
371. Mays, "Our Colleges and the Supreme Court Decision", 20 Marchs 1955, box 22, microfiche 3218, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
372. For more information, see Gilpin and Gasman, Charles S. Johnson;
373. and Richard Robbins, Sidelines Activist: Charles S. Johnson and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Oxford: University of Mississippi, 1996).
374. L. H. Foster, "Suggestions for 1955 UNCF Campaign", 8 September 1955, box 13, microfiche 1875, UNCF AUC Center Papers. Although not a member of the UNCF, Luther Foster, as well as several other public black college presidents, banded together with the private institutions in their response to the Court decision.
375. Lindsley F. Kimball to John D. Rockefeller Jr. and the Members of the Mobilizing Board, 10 June 1954, Messrs Rockefeller-Education, III 2G, box 95, folder 659, RAC.
376. Details of the reduction in individual donors and increase in corporate donors are included in York Allen Jr. to File, 13 December 1956, Messers Rockefeller-Education, III, 2G, box 95, folder 659A, RAC. Graph data found in UNCF Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
377. Wright, interview, 39.
378. Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper, 103.
379. Paul Younger in Drewry and Doermann, Stand and Prosper, 94.
380. For more information, see Alma Rene Williams, "A Research History of the United Negro College Fund, Inc., 1944-1987" (manuscript, United Negro College Fund, 1988).
381. Trent, interview, 88.
382. Stebman, interview, 166.
383. Hollis F. Price, "The Supreme Court Decision and the Private Negro College", 7 July 1954, box 13, microfiche 1875, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
384. Mays, "In view of the recent Supreme Court decision" [1954], box 13, microfiche 1875, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
385. William J. Trent Jr. to UNCF Leadership, "Objectives of the United Negro College Fund", n. d., box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
386. Description is based on "Tomorrow's Generation", 1954, lateral file, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
387. The Ford Foundation was never in full support of the UNCF and, in fact, refused in 1944 to provide seed money when asked by Frederick D. Patterson and John D. Rockefeller Jr. See Mays, interview
388. and Kimball, interview. It's interesting to note that in the transcriptions of both
389. Mays's and Kimball's interviews, their comments about the Ford Foundation are blacked out. Marcia Goodson let each of those UNCF leaders read the transcriptions and decide what they wanted to keep and what they wanted to delete. The transcriptions were completed on a typewriter and thus from time to time there are blacked out areas.
390. Kimball, interview, 43.
391. Trent, interview, October 1980.
392. Mays, interview, 58.
393. Kimball, interview.
394. Stebman, interview, 167.
395. Convocation Program, United Negro College Fund, Metropolitan Opera House, New York, New York, 20 March 1955, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3217.
396. Stebman, interview.
397. Benjamin E. Mays, United Negro College Fund Convocation, 20 March 1955, 1, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 3217.
398. See Marybeth Gasman, "From the Coffee Table to the Classroom: A Review of Recent Research on Historically Black Institutions", Educational Researcher, October 2005
399. and Marybeth Gasman, "The Higher Education Legacy of Brown v. Board", Diversity Digest, September 2004, for an in-depth discussion of the current state of black colleges, including the presence of white students on their campuses.
400. Martin D. Jenkins, "The Future of the Desegregated Negro College: A Critical Summary", The Journal of Negro Education 27, 3(summer 1958), 419-429;
401. Patterson, "Private Negro College", 363-369;
402. Felton G. Clark, "The Development and Present Status of Publicly-Supported Higher Education for Negroes", The Journal of Negro Education 27, 3(summer 1958), 221-232;
403. Frederick D. Patterson, "Colleges for Negro Youth and the Future", The Journal of Negro Education 27, 2(spring 1958), 107-114.
404. United Negro College Fund, Official Publication, [1954], box 16, microfiche 2295, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
405. Charles S. Thompson, "The Prospect of Negro Higher Education", Journal of Educational Sociology 32, 6(February 1959), 309-316, 311.
406. Allen to File, "United Negro College Fund", 13 December 1956, Messers Rockefeller, Education, III, 2G, box 95, folder 659A, RAC.
407. Thompson, "The Prospect of Negro Higher Education", 311-312.
408. Thompson also discusses these ideas in "The Negro College: In Retrospect and in Prospect", The Journal of Negro Education 27, 2(spring 1958), 127-131.
409. Gilpin and Gasman, Charles S. Johnson. Charles S. Johnson died unexpectedly in 1956 at the age of 63. After his death, Fisk University and its new president Stephen J. Wright had a very difficult time sustaining Johnson's programs and ideas. Other black colleges also pursued efforts to integrate, including Lincoln University in Jefferson City, Missouri.
410. (see www.lincolnu.edu/~lupres/history.htm).
411. Marybeth Gasman, "A Word for Every Occasion: Appeals by John D. Rockefeller Jr. to White Donors on Behalf of the United Negro College Fund", History of Higher Education Annual (2002).
412. Derrick Bell, Silent Covenants: Brown V. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
413. Graph data from UNCF Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
414. Thompson, "The Negro College", 130-131.
415. Benjamin E. Mays, "United Negro College Fund Address, Buffalo New York", 5 May 1959, UNCF AUC Center Papers.
416. Mays, "United Negro College Fund Address, Buffalo New York", 5 May 1959, UNCF AUC Center Papers. Mays' stance on the future of black colleges is also present in "Appraisal of a Venture. The United Negro College Fund's First Fifteen Years, 1944-1959", John D. Rockefeller Jr. Papers, III 2G, box 95, folder 659A, 1959, RAC. The number of UNCF member colleges increased to 33 in 1958 with the inclusion of Barber-Scotia College in North Carolina and St. Paul's College in Virginia.
417. A. J. Jaffe, Walter Adams, and Sandra G. Meyers, Negro Higher Education in the 1960s (New York: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1968).
418. Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989);
419. Daniel C. Thompson, Private Black Colleges at the Crossroads (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1973).
420. Patricia Gurin and Edgar Epps, Black Consciousness, Identity, and Achievement: A Study of Students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975);
421. Steven Biko, I Write What I Like: Selected Writings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978);
422. Steven Biko, "The Definition of Black Consciousness", SASO Leadership Training Course, South Africa, 1972.
423. Joy A. Williamson, "Student Activists, Activist Students: Black Colleges and the Civil Rights Movement" (paper presented at the History of Education Society Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, 2003), 6.
424. Mario Diani, "The Concept of Social Movements", The Sociological Review (1992).
425. Charles U. Smith, "The Sit-Ins and the New Negro Student", in Student Unrest on Historically Black Campuses, ed. Charles U. Smith (Tallahassee: Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, 1994).
426. Thompson, Private Black Colleges at the Crossroads.
427. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000);
428. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001);
429. and John D. Skrentny, "The Effect of the Cold War on African-American Civil Rights, 1945-1968", Theory and Society 27, 2(April 1998), 237-285.
430. See also Melvyn P. Leffler, "The Cold War: What Do 'We Now Know, '" The American Historical Review 104, 2(1999), 501-524;
431. Jonathan Rosenberg and Zachary Karabell, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003);
432. Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
433. Gurin and Epps, Black Consciousness. Of course, black students at predominantly white institutions also had these concerns.
434. See Joy A. Williamson, Black Power on Campus (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003).
435. Biko, "The Definition of Black Consciousness";
436. Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (New York: Grove Press, 1965).
437. Gurin and Epps, Black Consciousness, 204.
438. Lisa Wolf-Wendal, Susan Twombly, Kathryn Tuttle, and Kelly Ward, Reflecting Back, Looking Forward: Civil Rights and Student Affairs (Washington, D. C.: NASPA, 2004).
439. Benjamin Muse, The American Negro Revolution: From Nonviolence to Black Power (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973);
440. Raymond Murphy and Howard Elinson, Problems and Prospects of the Negro Movement (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1966).
441. Smith, ed., Student Unrest on Historically Black Campuses, 16.
442. Robert H. Brisbane, Black Activism: Racial Revolution in the United States, 1954-1970 (Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1974).
443. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981);
444. Juan Williams and Dwayne Ashley, I'll Find a Way or Make One: A Tribute to Historically Black Colleges and Universities (New York: Harper Collins, 2004).
445. Wright, interview, 45.
446. United Negro College Fund, United Negro College Fund Finders' Guide to the Archives (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1985).
447. Herbert Haines, "Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957-1970", Social Problems 32, 1(October 1984), 31-43.
448. Kimball, interview, 61-62.
449. United Negro College Fund, Guide to the Archives, xiv.
450. "The United Negro College Fund and the Present Civil Rights Crisis", 29 July 1963, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division. Emphasis added.
451. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);
452. William Watkins, The White Architects of Black Education. Ideology and Power in America, 1865-1954 (New York: Teachers College Press, 2001).
453. Kimball, interview, 58.
454. "Advance Guard of a New Generation", 1967, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2532.
455. Haines, "Black Radicalization", 31-43.
456. Kimball, interview, 59.
457. David Garrow, Philanthropy and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society, 1987), 1.
458. "Advance Guard of a New Generation", 1967, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2532 (emphasis added by author).
459. Also see, "A Rationale for Corporate Investment in the Thirty-Six Member College and Universities of the United Negro College Fund", 1968, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2540.
460. "We've Got a Goldmine Here", 1969, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2511. Another brochure is entitled "Black Youth, Black Pride, Black Colleges", but it does not place any emphasis on "black pride", instead it has a business focus.
461. See "Black Youth, Black Pride, Black Colleges", 1970, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2538.
462. "We've Got a Goldmine Here", 1969, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2511.
463. Wright, interview, 50-51.
464. Gurin and Epps, Black Consciousness.
465. Wright, interview, 50.
466. Williams and Ashley, I'll Find a Way or Make One;
467. Juan Williams, My Soul Looks Back in Wonder: Voices of the Civil Rights Experience (New York: AARP/Sterling, 2004).
468. Price, interview, 85.
469. For a thorough and varied discussion of these issues, see Joel Rosenthal, "Southern Black Student Activism: Assimilation vs. Nationalism", The Journal of Negro Education 44, 2 (spring, 1975);
470. Joy Williamson, "'Quirks, Quacks, Agitators, and Communists': Private Black Colleges and the Limits of Institutional Autonomy", History of Higher Education Annual 23 (2003);
471. Diane Ravitch, "From Berkeley to Kent State", in The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945-1984 (New York: Basic Books, 1980).
472. Albert Manley, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, June 1987, UNCF Oral History, No. 1331, 24.
473. Mays, interview, 60.
474. Price, interview, 85.
475. Wright, interview, 119.
476. "A Rationale for Corporate Investment in the Thirty-Six Member College and Universities of the United Negro College Fund", 1970, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2540.
477. Vernon Jordan, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, March 1987, UNCF Oral History, 208.
478. Morris B. Abram, a native of Georgia, was the president of Brandeis University and a partner in the law firm Paul, Weiss, Goldberg, Rifkind, Whorton and Garrison of New York. He was also a member of the Morehouse College board of trustees.
479. For details on the recruitment of Abrams, see Jordan, interview, March 1987.
480. Morris B. Abram in "Is the United Negro College Fund to Limp into This Decade as an Irresistible Anachronism? I am Confident it is Not", 1970, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2540.
481. Vernon E. Jordan, "Address to Youth Freedom Awards Dinner", speech given at 61st Annual NAACP Convention, 2 July 1970, Cincinnati, Ohio, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Microfiche 1757, 13. The quotation from W. E. B. Du Bois is given here essentially as Jordan delivered it at the convention, with some changes to punctuation. However, Jordan's version is not technically accurate, as he introduced some changes in wording, possibly to enhance the spoken effect.
482. The original wording can be found in Du Bois, W. E. B., The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.; [Cambridge]: University Press John Wilson and Son, Cambridge, U. S. A., 1903);
483. Bartleby.com, 1999. www.bartleby.com/114/. [accessed September 25, 2006]. Note that the original phrase "warring ideals", changed in Jordan's version to "worn ideals", has been restored here.
484. Vernon E. Jordan, "The Foundation and Society", speech given to Foundation Luncheon Group, New York City, 13 June 1972, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche 1758, 2.
485. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988). Not until 1963 did Kennedy offer any substantive support to civil rights. In June of that year, Kennedy gave a speech that endorsed the civil rights agenda and called for federal legislation to end segregation in public accommodations and racial discrimination in employment.
486. For more information, see Nick Kolz, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005)
487. and Jonathan Rosenburg and Zachary Karabell, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2003).
488. Wright, interview, 73.
489. Mays, interview, 21.
490. Kimball, interview, 21.
491. Patterson, interview, February 1981, 69-70.
492. Over the course of their existence, black colleges were the subject of many studies seeking to understand their role in American higher education. See Thomas Jesse Jones, Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Public Higher Education Schools for Colored People in the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1969);
493. W. C. John, Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges, 1917-1918 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1920);
494. Arthur Klein, Survey of Negro Colleges and Universities (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969);
495. Phelps-Stokes Fund, The Twenty-Year Report of the Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1911-1931 (New York: The Phelps-Stokes Foundation, 1932);
496. U. S. Office of Education, National Survey of the Higher Education of Negroes (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1942).
497. Although not specifically focused on black colleges, Abraham Flexner conducted a study, "Medical Education in the United States and Canada", which literally provided the plan to eliminate all but two of the black medical schools. Within several years of Flexner's Carnegiesponsored report, only Meharry and Howard medical schools remained.
498. See Abraham Flexner, "Medical Education in the United States and Canada", Carnegie Foundation Bulletin, No. 4, (1910).
499. For more information, see Thomas Bonner, Iconoclast: Abraham Flexner and a Life in Learning (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). At the turn of the century, black intellectuals like W. E. B. Du Bois wanted to verify the existence and success of a liberal arts curriculum at these institutions.
500. For more information, see W. E. B. Du Bois, The College Bred Negro (Atlanta: Atlanta University, 1900)
501. and W. E. B. Du Bois, The College Bred Negro American (Atlanta: Atlanta University Publications, 1910).
502. Jane E. Smith Browning and John B. Williams, "History and Goals of Black Institutions of Higher Learning", in Black Colleges in America, ed. Willie and Edmonds.
503. Earl J. McGrath, The Predominantly Negro Colleges and Universities in Transition (New York: Institute of Higher Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1965).
504. Mays, interview.
505. Lea E. Williams, "Public Policies and Financial Exigencies. Black Colleges Twenty Years Later, 1965-1985", Journal of Black Studies 19, 2(December 1988), 135-149.
506. McGrath, Predominantly Negro Colleges, vi.
507. Jencks and Riesman, "The American Negro College."
508. Stephen J. Wright, Benjamin E. Mays, Hugh M. Gloster, Albert W. Dent, Christopher Jencks, and David Riesman, "'The American Negro College: Four Responses and a Reply", Harvard Educational Review 37, 3, (spring 1967).
509. "Integrating the Negro College", The New York Times, 18 January 1966;
510. "Negro Colleges Recruit Whites", The New York Times, 16 January 1966;
511. and "The Negro College Pleas for Donations", The New York Times, 21 January 1966.
512. Christopher Jencks, telephone interview by author, tape recording, Philadelphia, 30 September 2003.
513. Emphasis added in quote. Jencks, interview.
514. See also Marybeth Gasman, "Convincing Words: Fundraising Language Used by the United Negro College Fund in the Aftermath of the Brown Decision", History of Education Quarterly 44, 1 (winter 2003).
515. Jencks and Riesman, "The American Negro College."
516. The process of accepting articles at Harvard Educational Review involves the board as a whole voting on the articles to be published. Then, the articles are assigned to two co-editors, who manage the content and process of one specific journal.
517. Jencks, interview.
518. Jencks and Riesman, "The American Negro College", 4.
519. For examples, see Patricia Gurin, "Social Class Constraints on the Occupational Aspirations of Students Attending Some Predominantly Negro Colleges", The Journal of Negro Education 35, 4(autumn 1966), 336-350
520. and Patricia Gurin and Edgar Epps, "Some Characteristics of Students from Poverty Backgrounds Attending Predominantly Negro Colleges in the Deep South", Social Forces 45, 1(September 1966), 27-40.
521. Note that Jencks and Riesman were critical of many small white colleges as well, but these colleges were not used as comparison in the "The American Negro College" article. Jencks and Riesman's critique was published in an individual chapter ("anti-university colleges") of the Academic Revolution.
522. Jencks and Riesman, "The American Negro College", 27.
523. Patrick J. Gilpin and Marybeth Gasman, Charles S. Johnson: Leadership Beyond the Veil in the Age of Jim Crow (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003);
524. Katrina Sanders, "Intelligent and Effective Direction": The Fisk University Race Relations Institute, 1944-1969 (New York; Peter Lang Publishers, 2005).
525. Daniel P. Moynihan, "The Negro Family: The Case for National Action", in The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy, ed. Lee Rainwater and W. Yancey (Boston: M. I. T. Press, 1967). In the case of Daniel P. Moynihan, a report that might have been well-meaning was dangerous to the African American community and served to undermine the structure of the African American family. Not only did Moynihan's work blame the victim rather than the oppressor for the black families in situations of poverty, but it also vilified black women and pitted them against black men. If Moynihan had consulted members of African American families and been familiar with African American history and culture, he might have crafted a richer study that was less susceptible to misinterpretation and misuse. In addition, his research might have been not only more accurate but also more useful to the very community he claimed to want to help.
526. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
527. In addition to The Academic Revolution
528. Jencks has published several other books, including The Homeless and The Black White Test Score Gap (with Meredith Phillips). A cold war-era sociologist, David Riesman died at age 92 in 2002. A lawyer by training, Riesman taught at Harvard University for most of his career.
529. Along with Reuel Denney and Nathan Glazer, he published a bestselling book, The Lonely Crowd, which was a "condemnation of consumerist passivity."
530. Riesman also wrote Constraint and Variety in American Education (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1956).
531. (See Paul Buhle, "David Riesman", The Guardian, 13 May 2002).
532. Mays, interview.
533. Time, 31 March 1967, 64.
534. Marybeth Gasman, "Convincing Words: Fundraising Language Used by the United Negro College Fund in the Aftermath of the Brown Decision", History of Education Quarterly 44, 1 (winter 2003).
535. Time, 31 March 1967, 64.
536. Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", in The Academic Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968): 475.
537. Jencks, interview.
538. James S. Coleman, Equity and Educational Opportunity (Washington, D. C.: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1966);
539. Daniel P. Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, D. C.: The Department of Labor, 1965).
540. Jencks, interview.
541. Initial remarks, "Four Responses." Stephen Wright contacted the editor of the Harvard Educational Review and asked if the journal would publish a rebuttal to the provocative article.
542. The editors, Davenport Plumer and Janet J. Sanfillipo, agreed to publish the UNCF-led response in its entirety. Harvard Educational Review dedicated fourteen pages to the black response, asked Jencks and Riesman to comment on the response, and also included eight pages of letters to the editor on the topic (more than one page of letters on any issue was unusual). According to the Journal's editorial board, "'The American Negro College, '... has been the subject of widespread discussion and some misleading publicity. We are pleased to print the following four responses to the article, each written by a leader in Negro education, together with a reply by the authors. We urge interested readers to refer once again to the original article, as well as to the additional responses to it published in the 'To the Editors' section of this issue", 451.
543. Wright, "Four Responses", 451.
544. Mays, "Four Responses", 456.
545. McGrath, Predominantly Negro Colleges, 5.
546. Gloster, "Four Responses", 458.
547. Dent, "Four Responses", 461.
548. John Sekora, "On Negro Colleges: A Reply to Jencks and Riesman", Antioch Review 28, 1(1968):7.
549. For a deeper exploration, see Joy A. Williamson, "Student Activists, Activist Students: Black Colleges and the Civil Rights Movement" (paper presented at the History of Education Society Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, 2003).
550. Sekora, "On Negro Colleges", 19.
551. Williamson, "Student Activists", 25.
552. "Negro Colleges-Their Outlook", U. S. News and World Report (3 June 1968): 74.
553. See A. J. Jaffe, Walter Adams, and Sandra G. Meyers, "The Sharply Stratified World of the Negro Colleges", Publication no. A-482 (New York: Columbia University Bureau of Applied Social Research, 1968).
554. Jencks and Riesman, "Four Responses and a Reply", 465-468, 465.
555. Patricia Gurin and Edgar Epps, Black Consciousness, Identity, and Achievement: A Study of Students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975);
556. Nathaniel Norment Jr., The African American Studies Reader (Durham, N. C.: Carolinas Academic Press, 2001).
557. Jencks and Riesman, "Four Responses and a Reply", 467.
558. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (New York: Free Press, 1957). Even some modern critics, such as film director Spike Lee (School Daze), have called into question the black college students' attraction to Greek life, societal trappings, and the hazing process.
559. See Williamson, "Student Activists";
560. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981);
561. and Aldon Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984).
562. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges."
563. It is important to note that Jencks and Riesman did make some changes to their article when it appeared in The Academic Revolution. These changes were based on criticism from the black community.
564. See John R. Thelin, John T. Casteen III, and Jane M. Bailey, "After The Academic Revolution: A Retrospective Forum", The Review of Higher Education 12, 1(autumn 1998):1-16;
565. Sekora, "On Negro Colleges", 5-26.
566. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 476.
567. Jencks, interview.
568. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 477.
569. See also Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie. In this text, Frazier, extremely critical of the black middle class, pointed to their wearing of furs, socializing, and joining elite groups as aiding the downfall of the race. As a result, he was ostracized by some members of the black community.
570. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 477.
571. Earl J. McGrath, The Predominantly Negro Colleges and Universities in Transition (New York: Institute of Higher Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1965).
572. See also Benjamin E. Mays, "The Achievements of the Negro Colleges", The Atlantic Monthly, February 1966.
573. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 477.
574. Mays, interview, 112.
575. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 477.
576. Wright, interview, 113.
577. Jencks and Riesman, "Negroes and Their Colleges", 477.
578. Charles V. Willie, telephone interview by author, tape recording, Philadelphia, 2 September 2003.
579. Jencks, interview.
580. Thomas Sowell, "On Racial Censorship and Rush Limbaugh", Jewish World Review (3 October 2003), accessed 5 October 2003.
581. See also Thomas Sowell, "Rush not Guilty of Overt Racism", Lenawee Connection (7 October 2003).
582. Sowell, Black Education.
583. In 1960 and 1962, black scholars and administrators contributed to the conversations taking place about the status of black colleges in an organized way. In 1960, The Journal of Negro Education published a special issue on black colleges, "The Negro Private and Church-Related College."
584. Editorial Note, "The Negro Private and Church-Related College", The Journal of Negro Education 29, 3 (Summer 1960)
585. and Editorial Note, "The Negro Public College", The Journal of Negro Education 31, 3 (Summer 1962).
586. Willie and Edmonds, eds., Black Colleges in America;
587. Daniel C. Thompson, Private Black Colleges at the Crossroads (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973);
588. Frank Bowles and Frank A. DeCosta, Between Two Worlds: A Profile of Negro Higher Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971);
589. Walter Allen, Colleges in Black and White: African American Students in Predominantly White and Historically Black Public Universities (New York: State University of New York Press, 1991);
590. Henry Drewry and Humphrey Doermann, Stand and Prosper: Private Black Colleges and their Students (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
591. For a discussion of the Fund's "A Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Waste" slogan
592. see United Negro College Fund, United Negro College Fund Archives: A Guide and Index to the Microfiche (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1985).
593. Marybeth Gasman and Edward Epstein, "Creating an Image for Black Higher Education: A Visual Examination of the United Negro College Fund's Publicity, 1944-1960", Educational Foundations 18, 2 (Spring, 2004).
594. Marybeth Gasman, "A Word for Every Occasion: Appeals by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. to White Donors on Behalf of the United Negro College Fund", History of Higher Education Annual (2002);
595. Gasman and Epstein, "Creating an Image."
596. Wright, interview.
597. Joseph Taylor, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, UNCF Oral History, 47.
598. Jordan, interview, March 1987, 11.
599. Gasman, "Rhetoric vs. Reality."
600. Jordan, interview, March 1987, 11.
601. Taylor, interview.
602. Christopher Edley, interview by Marcia Goodson, transcript, UNCF Oral History.
603. Taylor, interview, 47.
604. Ad Council Papers, www.adcouncil.org, New York, New York.
605. see Linda King, "The Federal Government and Black Fundraising", Black Scholar 9, 4 (1977).
606. Jencks and Riesman, "The American Negro College."
607. Gasman, "Rhetoric v. Reality."
608. Marilyn Kern-Foxworth, Aunt Jemima, Uncle Ben, and Rastus: Blacks in Advertising, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994);
609. Herman Gray, Watching Race: Television and the Struggle for the Sign of Blackness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997);
610. Sasha Torres, Living Color: Race and Television in the United States (Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1998);
611. Donald Bogle, Primetime Blues: African Americans on Network Television (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 2001);
612. Fred J. MacDonald, Blacks and White TV: African Americans in Television since 1948 (New York: Wadsworth Publishing, 1992);
613. M. M. Manring, Slave in a Box: The Strange Career of Aunt Jemima (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998).
614. The Hollywood Reporter, "TV Milestones", 385, 30 (September
615. It should be noted that most of the popular televisions shows of the 1970s that dealt with blackness didn't appear until the mid-1970s after the "Mind" ads. (The Jeffersons-1975;
616. Sanford and Son-1972;
617. Welcome Back Kotter-1975;
618. Good Times-1974;
619. What's Happening-1974).
620. All in the Family (1971) appeared simultaneously with the airing of the first "Mind" ad.
621. Barbara Savage, Broadcasting Freedom: Radio, War, and the Politics of Race, 1938-1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
622. Taylor, interview, 48
623. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 6 May 2006.
624. "United Negro College Fund", Historic Campaigns, Ad Council Archives, www.adcouncil.org, New York, New York.
625. The ad is arranged in a way that looks much like many of James Whistler's paintings, such as Portrait of the Painter's Mother and Portrait of Thomas Carlyle. Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (New York: Vintage, 1995).
626. "A Mind is a Terrible Thing to Waste", 1971, Historic Campaigns, Ad Council Archives, New York, New York. According to Charles Stephens, the UNCF national campaign chair from 1973 to 1976, some people found this ad to be too depressing.
627. The idea of a black man fading away was too dire (interview with author, 6 May 2006).
628. Lewis Killian, "Race Relations of the Nineties: Where are the Dreams of the Sixties?" Social Forces 69, 1(1990), 1-13.
629. "You Can't Cure Cancer with a Monkey Wrench", 1972, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 2622.
630. Vernon Jordan, Vernon Can Read (New York: Basic Books, 2001). For a more detailed explanation, see pages 6-9.
631. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 6 May 2006.
632. Jordan, interview, March 1987.
633. "For About What It Costs", Ads, 1973, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 2623.
634. "Don't Think of it as Charity", 1972, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 2622.
635. Jordan, interview, January 1982, 31.
636. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 6 May 2006.
637. Please note that there was an interim director at the UNCF between Jordan and Edley. A man named Arthur Fletcher covered the position during the transition. See Edley, interview, 20.
638. See "Ford Foundation Annual Reports", 1963-1973, www.fordfound.org, accessed 12 May 2005.
639. "Once you had to put your life or liberty on the line", UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 1677.
640. "There was a time when supporting Black education could have cost your freedom", UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 1677.
641. "The Old Bodie Plantation", UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 1677.
642. "My mother is scrubbing floors", 1974, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 2623.
643. "My grandmother takes in washing", 1974, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 2623.
644. "My father works 12 hours a day putting down rails", 1974, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, Reel 2623.
645. "UNCF history", www.uncf.org, 5 May 2005.
646. "United Negro College Fund", Historic Campaigns, Ad Council Archives, New York, New York.
647. Edley, interview, 31.
648. "United Negro College Fund", Historic Campaigns, Ad Council Archives, New York, New York.
649. UNCF's "A Significant Adventure", [1950], General Education Board Papers, Record Group 5235-5240, Series 1, sub-series 3, box 491, folder 5240, RAC.
650. Edley, interview, 36.
651. "Who ever said... ?" UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 1677.
652. "This is No Place for Your Hands", 1978, UNCF Papers, Manuscript Division, microfiche, 1677.
653. Edley, interview, 36.
654. For more information on The Links support of the UNCF, see Kijua Sanders McMurty and Nia Woods Haydel, "The Links, Incorporated: Advocacy, Education, and Service in the African American Community", in Marybeth Gasman and Katherine V. Sedgwick, eds., Uplifting a People: Essays on African American Philanthropy and Education (New York: Peter Lang, 2005).
655. Charles Stephens, interview with author, 6 May 2006.
656. Edley, interview, 35.
657. Gasman, "A Word for Every Occasion. "
658. See Anderson, Education of Blacks in the South. Conclusion. An Organization That No One Could Argue Against
659. Ronald Roach, "Taking it to the Next Level", Black Issues in Higher Education, 9 September 2004.
660. United Negro College Fund, "Friends in High Place", Website (http://www.uncf.org/webfeature/archives/webfeature-01282005-First-Families.asp, accessed 5 May 2005).