Entangled memory: Toward a third wave in memory studies

History and Theory

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 24-44

  Feindt, Gregor ^a   Krawatzek, Félix ^b   Mehler, Daniela ^c   Pestel, Friedemann ^d   Trimçev, Rieke ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^c GOETHE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

^e UNIVERSITY OF HAMBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

collective memory; European identity; hermeneutics; histoire crois e; layers of time; memory studies; plurality; post national condition; reflexivity

Indexed keywords

EID: 84894141048     PISSN: 00182656     EISSN: 14682303     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/hith.10693     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. This article substantially benefited from remarks by Jörn Leonhard, Iain MacKenzie, and Jeffrey K. Olick as well as the anonymous reviewers of History and Theory.
2. We are furthermore indebted to the participants in a workshop at the Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Bielefeld on "European Memory?" in July 2011, where we were able to discuss an earlier version of this article in detail.
3. The authors remain jointly responsible for any remaining flaws.
4. The "first phase" is commonly, although simplistically, linked with Maurice Halbwachs's work La mémoire collective [1950] (Paris: Presses universitaires de France,1997);
5. Les cadres sociaux de la mémoire (Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan, 1925).
6. A second one began around the publication of Pierre Nora's and Jan Assmann's works in the 1980s and early 1990s: Pierre Nora, Les lieux de mémoire, 7 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1984-1992);
7. Jan Assmann, Cultural Memory and Early Civilization [1992] (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
8. Referring to an increasing methodological critique of these memory studies, a "third phase" has more recently been postulated by Astrid Erll, "Travelling Memory: Whither Memory Studies," Parallax 17 (2011), 4-18.
9. See also Wulf Kansteiner for an earlier critical voice: "Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies," History and Theory 41, no. 2 (2002), 179-197.
10. Erll, "Travelling Memory," 6.
11. She directs this criticism toward Nora as well as other scholars, such as Jan and Aleida Assmann and Jay Winter.
12. Other examples include John E. Bodnar, Remaking America: Public Memory, Commemoration, and Patriotism in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993);
13. Franz Knipping, "Rom, Capitol, 25.
14. März 1957," in Europäische Erinnerungsorte 2: Das Haus Europa, ed. P. den Boer, H. Duchhardt, G. Kreis, and W. Schmale (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2012), 97-104;
15. Stätten grenzüberschreitender Erinnerung-Spuren der Vernetzung des Saar-Lor-Lux-Raumes im 19. und 20.
16. Jahrhundert: Lieux de la mémoire transfrontalière-Traces et réseaux dans l'espace Sarre-Lor-Lux aux 19e et 20e siècles, ed. Rainer Hudemann, http://www.memotransfront.uni-saarland.de (accessed March 22, 2013);
17. Erinnerungsorte des Christentums, ed. Christoph Markschies (Munich: Beck, 2010);
18. Oldenburger Erinnerungsorte: Vom Schloss bis zur Hölle des Nordens, von Graf Anton Günther bis Horst Janssen, ed. Mareike Witkowski (Oldenburg: Isensee, 2012).
19. Without a doubt, Nora's initial inventory of French lieux de mémoire has led to this misconception, which successive adaptations in various other contexts, mainly of nation-states, have reiterated.
20. See, among others, Dansk identitetshistorie, ed. Ole Feldbæk, 4 vols. (Copenhagen: Reitzel, 1991-1992);
21. Pim den Boer, "Lieux de mémoire et l'identité de l'Europe," in Lieux de mémoire et identités nationales, ed. Pim den Boer and W. Frijhoff (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1993), 11-29;
22. I luoghi della memoria: Personaggi e date dell'Italia unita, ed. Mario Isnenghi, 3 vols. (Rome: Laterza, 1997);
23. Les Lieux de la mémoire: La commémoration du passé au Canada, ed. Thomas H. B. Symons (Ottawa: Société historique du Canada, 1997);
24. Deutsche Erinnerungsorte, ed. Étienne François and Hagen Schulze, 3 vols. (Munich: Beck, 2001-2002);
25. Gedächtnisorte im anderen Amerika: Tradition und Moderne in Québec, ed. Ingo Kolboom and Sabine A. Grzonka (Heidelberg: Synchron, 2002);
26. Memoria Austriae, ed. Emil Brix, Ernst Bruckmüller, and Hannes Stekl, 3 vols. (Vienna: Oldenbourg, 2004-2005);
27. Lieux de mémoire au Luxembourg: Usages du passé et construction nationale, ed. Sonja Kmec, Benoît Majerus, Michel Margue, and Pit Péporté (Luxembourg: Saint-Paul, 2008);
28. België: Eeen parcours van herinnering, ed. Geert Buelens and Jo Tollebeek, 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker/Prometheus, 2008);
29. Schweizer Erinnerungsorte: Aus dem Speicher der Swissness, ed. Georg Kreis (Zurich: Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 2010);
30. Pim den Boer, "Konzept Europa," in Europäische Erinnerungsorte 1. Mythen und Grundbegriffe des europäischen Selbstverständnisses, ed. Heinz Duchhardt, Georg Kreis, Wolfgang Schmale, and Pim den Boer (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2011), 59-74
31. even beyond the nation: Imagining the City: Memories and Cultures in Cape Town, ed. Sean Field, Renate Meyer, and Felicity Swanson (Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2007)
32. Deutsch-Polnische Erinnerungsorte, ed. Hans-Henning Hahn and Robert Traba, 3 vols. (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2012-2013).
33. Jeffrey K. Olick, The Politics of Regret: On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility (New York: Routledge, 2007), 89-90.
34. Steven Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past," Journal of Modern History 64, no. 2 (1992), 299-320.
35. Jan Assmann, "Kollektives Gedächtnis und kulturelle Identität," in Kultur und Gedächtnis, ed. Jan Assmann and T. Hölscher (Frankfurt on Main: Suhrkamp, 1998), 9-19;
36. Jan Assmann and John Czaplicka, "Collective Memory and Cultural Identity," New German Critique 65 (1995), 125-133;
37. Assmann, Cultural Memory and Early Civilization.
38. For instance, Sabine R. Arnold, Stalingrad im sowjetischen Gedächtnis: Kriegserinnerung und Geschichtsbild im totalitären Staat (Bochum: Projekt, 1998).
39. Michael Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonization (Cultural Memory in the Present) (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009).
40. A notable exception is the project on Polish-German lieux de mémoire that takes both "parallel" and "shared" constellations into account.
41. See Hahn and Traba, eds., Deutsch-Polnische Erinnerungsorte.
42. This tendency was already prominent in Nora's original collection of French realms of memory, but has been exploited further.
43. Witold Molik, "Das Denkmal der Armee 'Pozna?' als regionaler und gesamtpolitischer Erinnerungsort," in Gedächtnisorte in Osteuropa, ed. R. Jaworski, J. Kusber, and L. Steindorff (Frankfurt on Main: Peter Lang, 2003), 26-34;
44. Anna Kaminsky, Erinnerungsorte an die Opfer des Kommunismus in Belarus (Berlin: Metropol, 2011);
45. Alexandra Klei, Der erinnerte Ort: Geschichte durch Architektur: Zur baulichen und gestalterischen Repräsentation der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2011);
46. Christos Varvantakis, "A Monument to Dismantlement," Memory Studies 2, no. 1 (2009), 27-38;
47. Sarah Farmer, "Symbols that Face Two Ways: Commemorating the Victims of Nazism and Stalinism at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen," Representations 49 (1995), 97-119.
48. Olick, The Politics of Regret, 89.
49. Examples can be found in Avner Ben-Amos, "Les funérailles de Victor Hugo," in Nora, Les lieux de mémoire, vol. I: La république, 473-522;
50. Giovanni De Luna, "I fatti di luglio 1960," in Isnenghi, ed., I luoghi della memoria, 359-372;
51. Adam Krzemi?ski, "Der Kniefall," in François and Schulze, eds., Deutsche Erinnerungsorte, I, 638-653;
52. also Knipping, "Rom, Capitol, 25.
53. März 1957." 15. Nationalizing the Past: Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe, ed. Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
54. Jan Assmann had already formulated a strong parallel between memory and knowledge in an early definition of his concept of cultural memory, "Kollektives Gedächtnis und kulturelle Identität," 9.
55. Later definitions sharpened the concept and weakened this parallel.
56. Today, the distinction between memory and knowledge becomes especially fluid in those contributions that take up the notion of memory as it is formulated in psychology or neurosciences;
57. see, for instance, Harald Welzer, "Was ist das autobiographische Gedächtnis, und wie entsteht es?," Bios 15 (2002), 169-186.
58. For instance, Richard Terdiman, Present Past: Modernity and the Memory Crisis (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 8;
59. see also Helmut König, Politik und Gedächtnis (Weilerswist: Velbrück Wissenschaft, 2008), 27.
60. With regard to Halbwachs's critique of Bergson, see, for example, Lutz Niethammer, "Frontstellung und Unabschließbarkeit der Gedächtnistheorie von Maurice Halbwachs," in Erinnerung und Gesellschaft: Mémoire et Société, ed. H. Krapoth and D. Laborde (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2005), 114.
61. These signs are more than mere reproductions against the background of a "crisis of representation"; see Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Production of Presence: What Meaning Cannot Convey (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004);
62. Winfried Nöth, "Crisis of Representation?," Semiotica 143 (2003), 9-15;
63. Peter Burke, "From Representation to Construction," in What is Cultural History? (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2004), 74-99.
64. Acts of remembering thus conform to the basic hermeneutical structure most prominently called "the structure of something as something" by Martin Heidegger, Being and Time [1962] (Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2009), 189.
65. John Zammito, "Koselleck's Philosophy of Historical Time(s) and the Practice of History," History and Theory 43, no. 1 (2004), 134.
66. Among others, see Elena Esposito, Soziales Vergessen: Formen und Medien des Gedächtnisses der Gesellschaft (Frankfurt on Main: Suhrkamp, 2002), 7;
67. Moritz Csáky, "Die Mehrdeutigkeit von Gedächtnis und Erinnerung.
68. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur historischen Gedächtnisforschung," in Digitales Handbuch zur Geschichte und Kultur Russlands und Osteuropas, 9 (http://epub.ub.unimuenchen. de/603/1/csaky-gedaechtnis.pdf; accessed July 30, 2012), 8;
69. Daniel Levy, "Das kulturelle Gedächtnis," in Gedächtnis und Erinnerung: Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch, ed. C. Gudehus, A. Eichenberg, and H. Welzer (Stuttgart, Weimar: Metzler, 2010), 93.
70. As memories can be considered as clustered and layered experiences, their temporal relations constitute themselves as in Koselleck's model of historical experiences;
71. see his "Stetigkeit und Wandel aller Zeitgeschichten," in Zeitschichten (Suhrkamp: Frankfurt on Main, 2000), 246-264
72. Space of Experience' and 'Horizon of Expectation': Two Historical Categories," in Futures Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 255-276
73. as well as "Repetitive Structures in Language and History," in Performing the Past: Memory, History and Identity in Modern Europe, ed. K. Tilmans, F. van Vree, and J. Winter (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010), 51-66.
74. Helge Jordheim has defended Koselleck's theory of mutable and plural historical times against its reduction to a theory of periodization: see "Against Periodization: Koselleck's Theory of Multiple Temporalities," History and Theory 51, no. 2 (2012), 151-171.
75. With a similar impetus, Paul Ricoeur, in Memory, History, Forgetting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 443,.
76. states: "A pairing is thus made between 'anticipating' and 'returning,' like the pairing of horizon of expectation and space of experience in Koselleck, but on the level that Heidegger considers to be derivative with respect to historical consciousness."
77. Koselleck, "Die unbekannte Zukunft und die Kunst der Prognose," in Zeitschichten, 206.
78. Ricoeur summarizes this process: "Knowing that people of the past formulated expectations, predictions, desires, fears, and projects is to fracture historical determinism by retrospectively reintroducing contingency into history," Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, 382.
79. For the wider significance of the genuine relationality of meaning, see, in particular, Jacques Derrida, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences," in Writing and Difference, ed. A. Bass (London: Routledge, 1990), 278-294.
80. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory [1925] (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
81. Hence, this continuity does not reach further than "family resemblance." Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations: Philosophische Untersuchungen [1953] (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 2009), §67.
82. For a first adaptation in social theory see Peter Winch, The Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1990).
83. Csáky, "Die Mehrdeutigkeit von Gedächtnis und Erinnerung," 13-15.
84. This formulation points to J. G. A. Pocock's conceptualization of political languages; see John G. A. Pocock, "The Concept of a Language and the métier d'historien: Some Considerations on Practice," in Politics, Language and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (London: Methuen & Co, 1971).
85. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, §§243-315.
86. Cf. Gordon P. Baker and Peter Michael Stephan Hacker, "On Misunderstanding Wittgenstein: Kripke's Private Language Argument," Synthese 58 (1984), 407-450;
87. Crispin Wright, "Kripke's Account of the Argument against Private Language," Journal of Philosophy 81 (1984), 759-778;
88. Edward Craig, "Meaning and Privacy," in A Companion to the Philosophy of Language, ed. B. Hole and C. Wright (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 127-145.
89. For an extended discussion, see John Hunter, "Wittgenstein on Inner Processes and Outward Criteria," Canadian Journal of Philosophy 7 (1977), 805-817.
90. In declaring memory a fait social, Halbwachs shifted the emphasis for the study of memory toward memory's social embeddedness and its specific social reality.
91. Building upon Durkheim's principle of association, memory is furthermore not simply the sum of its individual components since "the group is differently constituted than the individual."
92. Émile Durkheim, "The Rules of Sociological Method," in Readings from Emile Durkheim, ed. K. Thompson (Chichester, UK, London, and New York: E. Horwood; Tavistock Publications, 1985), 65.
93. Halbwachs emphasized this point in his less known but nevertheless important English article "Individual Consciousness and Collective Mind," American Journal of Sociology 44 (1939), 815.
94. Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 33-34.
95. Friedemann Pestel, "Versailles als memory building-Memory-building mit Versailles" in Europäische Erinnerung? Gruppenübergreifende Erinnerung jenseits der Nation, ed. G. Feindt, F. Krawatzek, D. Mehler, F. Pestel, and R. Trimçev (Göttingen: V&R Unipress, forthcoming 2014).
96. Halbwachs concludes his earlier work on the social frameworks of memory by stating similarly: "The individual calls recollections to mind by relying on the frameworks of social memory.
97. In other words, the various groups that compose society are capable at every moment of reconstructing their past.
98. But, as we have seen, they most frequently distort that past in the act of reconstructing it." Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, 182.
99. This puts his in sharp contrast to other notions of memory that were discussed around the turn of the twentieth century;
100. see Félix Krawatzek and Rieke Trimçev, "Eine Kritik des Gedächtnisbegriffes als soziale Kategorie," Jahrbuch für Politik und Geschichte (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2013).
101. Such an approach to the social realm has nowadays found influential expression in the concept of over-determination;
102. see Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Toward a Radical Democratic Politics (London: Verso, 1985), 113.
103. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).
104. The plurality of actors is brilliantly summarized in the opening: "The two of us wrote Anti-Oedipus together.
105. Since each of us was several, there was already quite a crowd."
106. Laclau and Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy, 115.
107. Both citations ibid.
108. An exemplary illustration of this relationship has been given by Daniel Levy and Natan Sznaider, who reflect on the relationship of Holocaust memory and the social frame of Jewish diaspora in The Holocaust and Memory in the Global Age (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006), 39-54.
109. This property of memory is shared by the coercive power that social facts exercise, which depends upon the punishment that is related to its violation.
110. Durkheim, "The Rules of Sociological Method," 68.
111. This is to be understood in the aforementioned wide sense including, for example, monuments, widely used textbooks, regularly rebroadcast TV programs.58.
112. Cf. earlier usage of this term by Sebastian Conrad, who shares our criticism of homogeneous and nation-centered research agendas, but understands entangled memory as a specific constellation of postwar Germany and Japan.
113. Sebastian Conrad, "Entangled Memories: Versions of the Past in Germany and Japan, 1945-2001," Journal of Contemporary History 38 (2003), 85-99.
114. Michael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmermann, "Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity," History and Theory 45, no. 1 (2006), 30-50;
115. Sebastian Conrad and Shalini Randeria, "Geteilte Geschichten: Europa in einer postkolonialen Welt," in Jenseits des Eurozentrismus: Postkoloniale Perspektiven in den Geschichts-und Kulturwissenschaften, ed. Sebastian Conrad and Shalini Randeria (Frankfurt on Main and New York: Campus, 2002), 9-49;
116. Comparative and Transnational History: Central European Approaches and New Perspectives, ed. Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009);
117. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
118. See Esposito, Soziales Vergessen, 7,.
119. and for Hans-Georg Gadamer's Horizontverschmelzung, see Truth and Method (London: Sheed & Ward, 1975), 299-305.
120. Małgorzata Pakier and Bo Stråth, "Introduction," in A European Memory: Contested Histories and Politics of Remembrance, ed. Małgorzata Pakier and Bo Stråth (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2010),1-2.
121. Quite similarly, Claus Leggewie and Anne Lang reveal their motivation in Der Kampf um die europäische Erinnerung: Ein Schlachtfeld wird besichtigt (Munich: Beck, 2011), 7.
122. Moritz Csáky, Das Gedächtnis der Städte: Kulturelle Verflechtungen-Vienna und die urbanen Milieus in Zentraleuropa (Vienna: Böhlau, 2010), 121 (our translation).
123. Concentrating primarily on Central Europe, Csáky has also emphasized the need to transpose this property of memory to a wider European scale, "Die Mehrdeutigkeit von Gedächtnis und Erinnerung," 22.
124. Leggewie and Lang, Der Kampf um die europäische Erinnerung, 9 (our translation).
125. Some of these other contributions endeavor to fill a European memory container.
126. For instance, the recent Europäische Erinnerungsorte admit the existence of plurality on a conceptual level, but most empirical contributions fail to exploit this characteristic: Pim den Boer, Heinz Duchhardt, Georg Kreis, and Wolfgang Schmale, "Einleitung," in Duchhardt, Kreis, Schmale, and den Boer, eds., Europäische Erinnerungsorte 1, 7-12.
127. Similarly, and with a more starkly pronounced normative impetus, Étienne François refers to the necessity of enforcing the project of a European society united by a shared memory of critical junctures, such as the Second World War, which can be fostered through common commemorative events: Étienne François,.
128. "Europäische lieux de mémoire," in Transnationale Geschichte: Themen, Tendenzen und Theorien, ed. G. Budde, S. Conrad, and O. Janz (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006), 290-303, especially 300.
129. The notion of strategy here refers to Foucault's concept of a theoretical principle of order and constitution of segments of discursive formations.
130. See Michel Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge [1969] (London: Routledge, 2002), 71-78.
131. For case studies based on this approach, see Europäische Erinnerung? Gruppenübergreifende Erinnerung jenseits der Nation, ed. Gregor Feindt, Félix Krawatzek, Daniela Mehler, Friedemann Pestel, and Rieke Trimçev (Göttingen: V&R Unipress, forthcoming 2014).
132. Means for this range from conventions of inappropriateness to coercive measures like judicial sanctions that constitute difference.
133. This is obvious for Germany where Aufarbeitung of the Nazi past is an ongoing process.
134. A recent study on the Auswärtiges Amt triggered a new debate.
135. Eckart Conze, Norbert Frei, Peter Hayes, and Mosche Zimmermann, Das Amt und die Vergangenheit: Deutsche Diplomaten im Dritten Reich und in der Bundesrepublik (Munich: Karl Blessing Verlag, 2010).
136. In Central and Eastern Europe, it is the communist past that is frequently and controversially negotiated.
137. State-financed Institutes of National Remembrance, such as, for example, the Polish Instytut Pami?ci Narodowej, exert strong influence on interpretations of the past.
138. Michal Kope?ek, "In Search of 'National Memory': The Politics of History, Nostalgia and the Historiography of Communism in the Czech Republic and East Central Europe," in Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe after 1989, ed. Michal Kope?ek (Budapest: CEU Press, 2008), 87-91.
139. Similarly in Spain, the representation of franquismo in public spaces remains a controversial issue, as the debate on the 2007 Ley de memoria histórica showed.
140. Carolyn P. Boyd, "The Politics of History and Memory in Democratic Spain," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 617 (2008), 133-148.
141. In France especially, this led to an appeal of historians against legal authorities restricting interpretations of history out of political interests.
142. "Appel de Blois," Le Monde, November 10, 2008.
143. Urike Jureit, Generationenforschung (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006).
144. Ulrike Jureit, "Generationen als Erinnerungsgemeinschaften," in Generationen: Zur Relevanz eines wissenschaftlichen Grundbegriffs, ed. Ulrike Jureit and M. Wildt (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2005), 244-265;
145. König, Politik und Gedächtnis, 497-637;
146. Harald Welzer, Sabine Moller, and Karoline Tschuggnall, Opa war kein Nazi: Nationalsozialismus und Holocaust im Familiengedächtnis (Frankfurt on Main: Fischer Taschenbuch, 2002).
147. Dépasser le cadre national des "Lieux de mémoire" : Innovations méthodologiques, approches comparatives, lectures transnationale, ed. Benoît Majerus, Sonja Kmec, Michel Margue, and Pit Péporté (Brussels: P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2009).
148. Polish memory studies argue for a rediscovery of older scholarly traditions that have until now been neglected by Western memory studies.
149. See, for instance, Kornelia Ko?czal and Joanna Wawrzyniak, "Polskie badania pami?cioznawcze: Tradycje, koncepcje (nie)ci?gło?ci," Kultura i Społecze?stwo 55, no. 4 (2011), 11-63.
150. This phrase by Halbwachs had already been articulated by Johann Gustav Droysen in the 1850s in the heyday of historicism.
151. Halbwachs, La mémoire collective, 50;
152. Johann Gustav Droysen, Historik (Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, 1977), I, 89.
153. following up on this idea, see Philippe Martin, "Des lieux de mémoire pour l'Europe une mission impossible?," in Majerus et al., eds., Dépasser le cadre national, 169.
154. Michel Espagne, "Kulturtransfer und Fachgeschichte der Geisteswissenschaften," in Kulturtransfer und Vergleich, ed. M. Middell (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2000), 48;
155. Dirk Schlinkert, "Der Zeitzeuge: Eine Spurensuche im Übergang zum kulturellen Gedächtnis," in Die Zukunft der Erinnerung, ed. M. Grieger, U. Gutzmann, and Dirk Schlinkert (Wolfsburg: Volkswagen- Aktiengesellschaft, 2008), 54.
156. This claim is widely recognized; see, for example, Christian J. Emden, "Nation, Identität, Gedächtnis: Überlegungen zur Geschichtlichkeit des Politischen," in Arbeit am Gedächtnis: Für Aleida Assmann, ed. M. C. Frank and G.. Rippl (Munich: Fink, 2007), 63-85;
157. Erll, "Cultural Memory Studies"; Otto Gerhard Oexle, "Memoria als Kultur," in Memoria als Kultur, ed. Otto Gerhard Oexle (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 9-78.
158. Whereas Martin, "Des lieux de mémoire pour l'Europe une mission impossible?," 160,.
159. refers to history as a philosophical meta-concept, Werner Paravicini defends a holistic understanding of historical truth.
160. Die Wahrheit der Historiker (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2010), 38.
161. see also Kornelia Ko?czal, "Geschichtswissenschaft," in Gudehus, Eichenberg, and Welzer, eds., Gedächtnis und Erinnerung: Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch, 256.
162. This present-based approach corresponds on the level of chronological time with Koselleck's triptych of Aufschreiben, Fortschreiben, and Umschreiben.
163. den Boer, "Konzept Europa." 82.
164. See also den Boer, Duchhardt, Kreis, and Schmale, "Einleitung," 8.