Neurocognitive deficits, craving, and abstinence among alcohol-dependent individuals following detoxification

Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 26-37

  Naim Feil, Jodie ^a,b   Fitzgerald, Paul B ^a   Bradshaw, John L ^b   Lubman, Dan I ^c   Sheppard, Dianne ^b  

^a Australia   (Australia)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c EASTERN HEALTH   (Australia)

Author keywords

Alcohol dependence; Attentional control; Cognitive recovery; Craving; Frontostriatal dysfunction; Neurocognitive deficits

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ALCOHOL ABSTINENCE; ALCOHOLISM; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; ATTENTIONAL CONTROL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE RECOVERY; DRUG SEEKING BEHAVIOR; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; FRONTOSTRIATAL DYSFUNCTION; HUMAN; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROCOGNITIVE DEFICITS; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL RATING SCALE; QUESTIONNAIRE; REACTION TIME; STATISTICS; WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; YOUNG ADULT;

ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE; ATTENTIONAL CONTROL; COGNITIVE RECOVERY; CRAVING; FRONTOSTRIATAL DYSFUNCTION; NEUROCOGNITIVE DEFICITS;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ALCOHOL ABSTINENCE; ALCOHOLISM; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ATTENTION; COGNITION DISORDERS; DRUG-SEEKING BEHAVIOR; FEMALE; FOLLOW-UP STUDIES; HUMANS; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; QUESTIONNAIRES; REACTION TIME; STATISTICS AS TOPIC; WECHSLER SCALES; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84893117598     PISSN: 08876177     EISSN: 18735843     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/arclin/act090     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Alfonso-Loeches, S., Guerri, C. (2011). Molecular and behavioral aspects of the actions of alcohol on the adult and developing brain. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 48, 19-47.
2. Anton, R. F. (2000). Obsessive-compulsive aspects of craving: Development of the Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale. Addiction, 95, S211-S217.
3. Anton, R. F., Moak, D. H., Latham, P. K. (1996). The obsessive compulsive drinking scale: Anew method of assessing outcome in alcoholism treatment studies. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 225-231.
4. Baddeley, A. D. (1966). The capacity for generating information by randomization. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 119-129.
5. Baicy, K., London, E. D. (2007). Corticolimbic dysregulation and chronic methamphetamine abuse. Addiction, 102, 5-15.
6. Bates, M. E., Bowden, S. C., Barry, D. (2002). Neurocognitive impairment associated with alcohol use disorders: Implications for treatment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 193-212.
7. Beck, A., Steer, R. (1987). Manual for the Beck depression inventory. New York: Psychological Corp.
8. Bonnefond, A., Doignon-Camus, N., Touzalin-Chretien, P., Dufour, A. (2010). Vigilance and intrinsic maintenance of alert state: An ERP study. Behavioural Brain Research, 211, 185-190.
9. Bottlender, M., Soyka, M. (2004). Impact of craving on alcohol relapse during, and 12 months following, outpatient treatment. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 39, 357-361.
10. Bowden-Jones, H., McPhillips, M., Rogers, R., Hutton, S., Joyce, E. (2005). Risk-taking on tests sensitive to ventromedial prefrontal cortex dysfunction predicts early relapse in alcohol dependency: A pilot study. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17, 417-420.
11. Braet, W., Johnson, K. A., Tobin, C. T., Acheson, R., Bellgrove, M. A., Robertson, I. H., et al. (2009). Functional developmental changes underlying response inhibition and error-detection processes. Neuropsychologia, 47, 3143-3151.
12. Brandt, J., Butters, N., Ryan, C., Bayog, R. (1983). Cognitive loss and recovery in long-term alcohol abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 435-442.
13. Braver, T. S., Reynolds, J. R., Donaldson, D. I. (2003). Neural mechanisms of transient and sustained cognitive control during task switching. Neuron, 39, 713-726.
14. Brown, R. G., Soliveri, P., Jahanshahi, M. (1998). Executive processes in Parkinsons disease-random number generation and response suppression. Neuropsychologia, 36, 1355-1362.
15. Brugger, P. (1997). Variables that influence the generation of random sequences: An update. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, 627-661.
16. Carriere, J. S. A., Cheyne, J. A., Solman, G. J. F., Smilek, D. (2010). Age trends for failures of sustained attention. Psychology and Aging, 25, 569-574.
17. Chambers, C. D., Bellgrove, M.A., Stokes, M. G., Henderson, T. R., Garavan, H., Robertson, I. H., et al. (2006). Executive "brake failure" following deactivation of human frontal lobe. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 444-455.
18. Chan, K. K. S., Hui, C. L. M., Tang, J.Y. M., Chiu, C. P.Y., Chan, S. K.W., Lam, M. M. L., et al. (2011). Random number generation deficit in early schizophrenia. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 112, 91-103.
19. Chan, R. C. K., Chen, E.Y. H., Cheung, E. F. C., Chen, R.Y. L., Cheung, H. K. (2004).Astudy of sensitivity of the sustained attention to response task in patients with schizophrenia. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 18, 114-121.
20. Chan, R. C. K., Wang, Y., Cheung, E.F. C., Cui, J., Deng, Y., Yuan, Y., et al. (2009). Sustained attention deficit along the psychosis proneness continuum: Astudyon the sustained attention to response task (SART). Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 22, 180-185.
21. Chanraud, S., Martelli, C., Delain, F., Kostogianni, N., Douaud, G., Aubin, H.-J., et al. (2007). Brain morphometry and cognitive performance in detoxified alcoholdependents with preserved psychosocial functioning. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 429-438.
22. Cohen, H. L., Porjesz, B., Begleiter, H., Wang, W. (1997). Neurophysiological correlates of response production and inhibition in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21, 1398-1406.
23. Cox, W. M., Hogan, L. M., Kristian, M. R., Race, J. H. (2002). Alcohol attentional bias as a predictor of alcohol abusers treatment outcome. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, 237-243.
24. Crews, F. T., Buckley, T., Dodd, P. R., Ende, G., Foley, N., Harper, C., et al. (2005). Alcoholic neurobiology: Changes in dependence and recovery. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 1504-1513.
25. Davies, S. J. C., Pandit, S. A., Feeney, A., Stevenson, B. J., Kerwin, R.W., Nutt, D. J., et al. (2005). Is there cognitive impairment in clinically healthy abstinent alcohol dependence? Alcohol and Alcoholism, 40, 498-503.
26. De Wilde, B., Dom, G., Hulstijn, W., Sabbe, B. (2007). Motor functioning and alcohol dependence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 1820-1825.
27. Dirnberger, G., Frith, C. D., Jahanshahi, M. (2005). Executive dysfunction in Parkinsons disease is associated with altered pallidal-frontal processing. NeuroImage, 25, 588-599.
28. Dirnberger, G., Jahanshahi, M. (2010). Response selection in dual task paradigms: Observations from random generation tasks. Experimental Brain Research, 201, 535-548.
29. Dockree, P. M., Kelly, S. P., Robertson, I. H., Reilly, R. B., Foxe, J. J. (2005). Neurophysiological markers of alert responding during goal-directed behavior: A high-density electrical mapping study. NeuroImage, 27, 587-601.
30. DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.).Washington, DC: Author.
31. Durazzo, T. C., Gazdzinski, S., Yeh, P. H., Meyerhoff, D. J. (2008).Combined neuroimaging, neurocognitive and psychiatric factors to predict alcohol consumption following treatment for alcohol dependence. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 43, 683-691.
32. Evren, C., Durkaya, M., Evren, B., Dalbudak, E., Cetin, R. (2012). Relationship of relapse with impulsivity, novelty seeking and craving in male alcoholdependent inpatients. Drug and Alcohol Review, 31, 81-90.
33. Fassbender, C., Murphy, K., Foxe, J. J., Wylie, G. R., Javitt, D. C., Robertson, I. H., et al. (2004).Atopography of executive functions and their interactions revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Cognitive Brain Research, 20, 132-143.
34. Feil, J., Sheppard, D., Fitzgerald, P. B., Yücel, M., Lubman, D. I., Bradshaw, J. L. (2010). Addiction, compulsive drug seeking, and the role of frontostriatal mechanisms in regulating inhibitory control. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 248-275.
35. Fein, G., Torres, J., Price, L. J., Di Sclafani, V. (2006). Cognitive performance in long-term abstinent alcoholic individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1538-1544.
36. Fernández-Serrano, M. J., Pérez-García, M., Verdejo-García, A. (2011). What are the specific vs. generalized effects of drugs of abuse on neuropsychological performance? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 377-406.
37. Ginsburg, N., Karpiuk, P. (1994). Random number generation: Analysis of responses. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, 1183-1186.
38. Gordon, S. M., Sterling, R., Siatkowski, C., Raively, K., Weinstein, S., Hill, P. C. (2006). Inpatient desire to drink as a predictor of relapse to alcohol use following treatment. American Journal on Addictions, 15, 242-245.
39. Helton, W. S., Kern, R. P., Walker, D. R. (2009). Conscious thought and the sustained attention to response task. Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 600-607.
40. Hermens, D. F., Lagopoulos, J., Tobias-Webb, J., De Regt, T., Dore, G., Juckes, L., et al. (2013). Pathways to alcohol-induced brain impairment in young people: A review. Cortex, 49, 3-17.
41. Hester, R., Fassbender, C., Garavan, H. (2004). Individual differences in error processing: Areview and reanalysis of three event-related fMRI studies using the GO/NOGO task. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 986-994.
42. Hyman, S. E., Malenka, R. C. (2001). Addiction and the brain: The neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 695-703.
43. Ihara, H., Berrios, G. E., London, M. (2000). Group and case study of the dysexecutive syndrome in alcoholism without amnesia. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 68, 731-737.
44. Jahanshahi, M., Dirnberger, G. (1999). The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and random generation of responses: Studies with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neuropsychologia, 37, 181-190.
45. Jahanshahi, M., Dirnberger, G., Fuller, R., Frith, C. D. (2000). The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in random number generation: Astudy with positron emission tomography. NeuroImage, 12, 713-725.
46. Jahanshahi, M., Profice, P., Brown, R. G., Ridding, M. C., Dirnberger, G., Rothwell, J. C. (1998). The effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on suppression of habitual counting during random number generation. Brain, 121, 1533-1544.
47. Jahanshahi, M., Saleem, T., Ho, A. K., Dirnberger, G., Fuller, R. (2006). Random number generation as an index of controlled processing. Neuropsychology, 20, 391-399.
48. Johnson, K. A., Kelly, S. P., Bellgrove, M. A., Barry, E., Cox, M., Gill, M., et al. (2007).Response variability in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence for neuropsychological heterogeneity. Neuropsychologia, 45, 630-638.
49. Johnson, K. A., Robertson, I. H., Kelly, S. P., Silk, T. J., Barry, E., Dáibhis, A., et al. (2007). Dissociation in performance of children with ADHD and highfunctioning autism on a task of sustained attention. Neuropsychologia, 45, 2234-2245.
50. Joppich, G., Däuper, J., Dengler, R., Johannes, S., Rodriguez-Fornells, A., Münte, T. F. (2004). Brain potentials index executive functions during randomnumber generation. Neuroscience Research, 49, 157-164.
51. Kamarajan, C., Porjesz, B., Jones, K. A., Choi, K., Chorlian, D. B., Padmanabhapillai, A., et al. (2004). The role of brain oscillations as functional correlates of cognitive systems: A study of frontal inhibitory control in alcoholism. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 51, 155-180.
52. Kamarajan, C., Porjesz, B., Jones, K. A., Choi, K., Chorlian, D. B., Padmanabhapillai, A., et al. (2005). Alcoholism is a disinhibitory disorder: Neurophysiological evidence from a Go/No-Go task. Biological Psychology, 69, 353-373.
53. Keppel, G., Wickens, T. D. (2004). Design and analysis: A researchers handbook (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
54. Knoch, D., Brugger, P., Regard, M. (2005). Suppressing versus releasing a habit: Frequency-dependent effects of prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 885-887.
55. Kranzler, H. R., Mulgrew, C. L., Modesto-Lowe, V., Burleson, J.A. (1999). Validity of the ObsessiveCompulsive Drinking Scale (OCDS): Does craving predict drinking behavior? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 108-114.
56. Lawrence, A. J., Luty, J., Bogdan, N. A., Sahakian, B. J., Clark, L. (2009). Impulsivity and response inhibition in alcohol dependence and problem gambling. Psychopharmacology, 207, 163-172.
57. Li, C. S. R., Huang, C., Yan, P., Bhagwagar, Z., Milivojevic, V., Sinha, R. (2008). Neural correlates of impulse control during stop signal inhibition in cocainedependent men. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 1798-1806.
58. Li, C. S. R., Luo, X., Yan, P., Bergquist, K., Sinha, R. (2009). Altered impulse control in alcohol dependence: Neural measures of stop signal performance. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 740-750.
59. Li, C. s. R., Milivojevic, V., Kemp, K., Hong, K., Sinha, R. (2006). Performance monitoring and stop signal inhibition in abstinent patients with cocaine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 85, 205-212.
60. Manly, T., Owen, A. M., McAvinue, L., Datta, A., Lewis, G. H., Scott, S. K., et al. (2003). Enhancing the sensitivity of a sustained attention task to frontal damage: Convergent clinical and functional imaging evidence. Neurocase, 9, 340-349.
61. Manly, T., Robertson, I. H., Galloway, M., Hawkins, K. (1999). The absent mind: Further investigations of sustained attention to response. Neuropsychologia, 37, 661-670.
62. Manning, V., Wanigaratne, S., Best, D., Hill, R. G., Reed, L. J., Ball, D., et al. (2008). Changes in neuropsychological functioning during alcohol detoxification. European Addiction Research, 14, 226-233.
63. McAvinue, L., OKeeffe, F., McMackin, D., Robertson, I. H. (2005). Impaired sustained attention and errorawareness in traumatic brain injury: Implications for insight. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 15, 569-587.
64. Middleton, F. A., Strick, P. L. (2000). Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: Motor and cognitive circuits. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 236-250.
65. Molenberghs, P., Gillebert, C. R., Schoofs, H., Dupont, P., Peeters, R., Vandenberghe, R. (2009). Lesion neuroanatomy of the Sustained Attention to Response task. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2866-2875.
66. Monterosso, J. R., Aron, A. R., Cordova, X., Xu, J., London, E. D. (2005). Deficits in response inhibition associated with chronic methamphetamine abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 79, 273-277.
67. Morrison, F. (2011). Neuropsychological Impairment and Relapse following Inpatient Detoxification in Severe Alcohol Dependence. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9, 151-161.
68. Noël, X., Bechara, A., Brevers, D., Verbanck, P., Campanella, S. (2010). Alcoholism and the loss of willpower: A neurocognitive perspective. Journal of Psychophysiology, 24, 240-248.
69. Noël, X., Paternot, J., Van Martial Linden, D. E. R., Sferrazza, R., Verhas, M., Hanak, C., et al. (2001). Correlation between inhibition, working memoryand delimited frontal area blood flow measured by 99MTc-Bicisate SPECT in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 36, 556-563.
70. Noël, X., Sferrazza, R., Van Linden, M. D., Paternot, J., Verhas, M., Hanak, C., et al. (2002). Contribution of frontal cerebral blood flow measured by 99mTc-bicisate spect and executive function deficits to predicting treatment outcome in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37, 347-354.
71. Noël, X., Van der Linden, M., dAcremont, M., Bechara, A., Dan, B., Hanak, C., et al. (2007). Alcohol cues increase cognitive impulsivity in individuals with alcoholism. Psychopharmacology, 192, 291-298.
72. Noël, X., Van Der Linden, M., Schmidt, N., Sferrazza, R., Hanak, C., Le Bon, O., et al. (2001). Supervisory attentional system in nonamnesic alcoholic men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 1152-1158.
73. OConnell, R. G., Bellgrove, M. A., Dockree, P. M., Lau, A., Fitzgerald, M., Robertson, I. H. (2008). Self-Alert Training: Volitional modulation of autonomic arousal improves sustained attention. Neuropsychologia, 46, 1379-1390.
74. OConnell, R. G., Bellgrove, M. A., Dockree, P. M., Robertson, I. H. (2006). Cognitive remediation in ADHD: Effects of periodic non-contingent alerts on sustained attention to response. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 16, 653-665.
75. OConnell, R. G., Dockree, P. M., Bellgrove, M. A., Turin, A., Ward, S., Foxe, J. J., et al. (2009). Two types of action error: Electrophysiological evidence for separable inhibitory and sustained attention neural mechanisms producing error on Go/No-go tasks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 93-104.
76. OConnor, C., Manly, T., Robertson, I. H., Hevenor, S. J., Levine, B. (2004).AnfMRI of sustained attention with endogenous and exogenous engagement. Brain and Cognition, 54, 133-135.
77. Oscar-Berman, M., Marinković, K. (2007). Alcohol: Effects on neurobehavioral functions and the brain. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 239-257.
78. Peters, M., Giesbrecht, T., Jelicic, M., Merckelbach, H. (2007). The random number generation task: Psychometric properties and normative data of an executive function task in a mixed sample. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 626-634.
79. Ratti, M. T., Bo, P., Giardini, A., Soragna, D. (2002). Chronic alcoholism and the frontal lobe: Which executive functions are impaired? Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 105, 276-281.
80. Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Moss, S. A., Brereton, A.V., Tonge, B. J. (2006). Pseudo-randomnumbergeneration in children with high-functioningautism and Aspergers disorder: Further evidence for a dissociation in executive functioning? Autism, 10, 70-85.
81. Roberts, J. S., Anton, R. F., Latham, P. K., Moak, D. H. (1999). Factor structure and predictive validity of the ObsessiveCompulsive Drinking Scale. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 1484-1491.
82. Robertson, C., Hazlewood, R., Rawson, M. D. (1996). The effects of Parkinsons disease on the capacity to generate information randomly. Neuropsychologia, 34, 1069-1078.
83. Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T., Yiend, J. (1997). Oops!: Performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia, 35, 747-758.
84. Rogers, B. P., Parks, M. H., Nickel, M. K., Katwal, S. B., Martin, P. R. (2012). Reduced fronto-cerebellar functional connectivity in chronic alcoholic patients. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 36, 294-301.
85. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Brammer, M. J., Taylor, E. (2003). Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. NeuroImage, 20, 351-358.
86. Rubio, G., Jiménez, M., Rodríguez-Jiménez, R., Martínez, I., A ́ vila, C., Ferre, F., et al. (2008). The role of behavioral impulsivity in the development of alcohol dependence: A 4-year follow-up study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 1681-1687.
87. Salamé, P., Danion, J. M. (2007). Inhibition of inappropriate responses is preserved in the think-no-think and impaired in the random number generation tasks in schizophrenia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 277-287.
88. Schmidt, P., Helten, C., Soyka, M.(2011). Predictive value of obsessive-compulsive drinking scale (OCDS) for outcomein alcohol-dependent inpatients: Results of a 24-month follow-up study. Substance Abuse: Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 6, 1-7.
89. Sorg, S. F., Taylor, M. J., Alhassoon, O. M., Gongvatana, A., Theilmann, R. J., Frank, L. R., et al. (2012). Frontal white matter integrity predictors of adult alcohol treatment outcome. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 262-268.
90. Stavro, K., Pelletier, J., Potvin, S. (2012). Widespread and sustained cognitive deficits in alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Addiction Biology.
91. Stockwell, T., Hodgson, R., Edwards, G. (1979).The development of a questionnaire to measure severity of alcohol dependence. British Journal of Addiction, 74, 79-87.
92. Stockwell, T., Sitharthan, T., McGrath, D., Lang, E. (1994). The measurement of alcohol dependence and impaired control in community samples. Addiction, 89, 167-174.
93. Sullivan, E.V., Rosenbloom, M. J., Lim, K. O., Pfefferbaum, A. (2000). Longitudinal changes in cognition, gait, and balance in abstinent and relapsed alcoholic men: Relationships to changes in brain structure. Neuropsychology, 14, 178-188.
94. Tapert, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Drummond, S. P. A., Paulus, M. P., Brown, S. A., Yang, T. T., et al. (2007). FunctionalMRIof inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 194, 173-183.
95. Tekin, S., Cummings, J. L. (2002). Frontal-subcortical neuronal circuits and clinical neuropsychiatry: An update. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 647-654.
96. Towse, J. N., Valentine, J. D. (1997). Random generation of numbers: A search for underlying processes. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 9, 381-400.
97. Verdejo-García, A., Lawrence, A. J., Clark, L. (2008). Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: Review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 777-810.
98. Verdejo-García, A., Lubman, D. I., Schwerk, A., Roffel, K., Vilar-López, R., MacKenzie, T., et al. (2012). Effect of craving induction on inhibitory control in opiate dependence. Psychopharmacology, 219, 519-526.
99. Verdejo-Garcia, A. J., Perales, J. C., Perez-Garcia, M. (2007). Cognitive impulsivity in cocaine and heroin polysubstance abusers. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 950-966.
100. Vivian, T. N., Goldstein, G., Shelly, C. (1973). Reaction time and motor speed in chronic alcoholics. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 36, 136-138.
101. Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
102. Weinstein, A., Cox, W. M. (2006). Cognitive processing of drug-related stimuli: The role of memory and attention. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 20, 850-859.
103. Whyte, J., Grieb-Neff, P., Gantz, C., Polansky, M. (2006). Measuring sustained attention after traumatic brain injury: Differences in key findings from the sustained attention to response task (SART). Neuropsychologia, 44, 2007-2014.
104. Williams, M.A., Moss, S. A., Bradshaw, J. L., Rinehart, N. J. (2002).Randomnumber generation in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 43-47.
105. Yücel, M., Lubman, D. I., Harrison, B. J., Fornito, A., Allen, N. B., Wellard, R. M., et al. (2007).Acombined spectroscopic and functional MRI investigation of the dorsal anterior cingulate region in opiate addiction. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 691-702.
106. Zinn, S., Stein, R., Swartzwelder, H. S. (2004). Executive functioning early in abstinence from alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 1338-1346.