Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: Motor and cognitive circuits

Brain Research Reviews

Volumn 31, Issue 2-3, 2000, Pages 236-250

  Middleton, Frank A ^a   Strick, Peter L ^a,b  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b SUNY UPSTATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Dentate nucleus; Globus pallidus; Prefrontal cortex; Primate; Substantia nigra; Virus tracing

Indexed keywords

1,2,3,6 TETRAHYDRO 1 METHYL 4 PHENYLPYRIDINE;

ANATOMY; BASAL GANGLION; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN INJURY; BRAIN REGION; CEREBELLUM; COGNITION; CONFERENCE PAPER; DENTATE NUCLEUS; GLOBUS PALLIDUS; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; MOTOR CONTROL; MOTOR CORTEX; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MOVEMENT (PHYSIOLOGY); NERVE CELL NETWORK; NERVE PROJECTION; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PREMOTOR CORTEX; PRIMATE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SINGLE UNIT ACTIVITY; SUBSTANTIA NIGRA;

ANIMALS; BASAL GANGLIA; CEREBELLUM; COGNITION; HUMANS; MOVEMENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 0034106888     PISSN: 01650173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0165-0173(99)00040-5     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (177)

1. Akshoomoff N.A., Courchesne E. A new role for the cerebellum in cognitive function. Behav. Neurosci. 106:1992;731-738.
2. Alexander G.E., DeLong M.R., Strick P.L. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 9:1986;357-381.
3. Allen G.I., Tsukahara N. Cerebrocerebellar communication systems. Physiol. Rev. 54:1974;957-1006.
4. Allen G.I., Gilbert P.F., Yin T.C. Convergence of cerebral inputs onto dentate neurons in monkey. Exp. Brain Res. 32:1978;151-170.
5. Anderson G.M., Pollak E.S., Chatterjee D., Leckman J.F., Riddle M.A., Cohen D.J. Postmortem analysis of subcortical monamines and amino acids in Tourette syndrome. Adv. Neurol. 58:1992;123-133.
6. Anderson M.E., Horak F.B. Influence of the globus pallidus on arm movements in monkeys. III. Timing of movement-related information. J. Neurophysiol. 54:1985;433-448.
7. Andreasen N.C., O'Leary D.S., Cizaldo T., Arndt S., Rezai K., Boles Ponto L.L., Watkins G.L., Hichwa R.D. Schizophrenia and cognitive dysmetria: a positron-emission tomography study of dysfunctional prefrontal-thalamic-cerebellar circuitry. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;9985-9990.
8. Andreasen N.C., Rezzai K., Alliger R., Swayze V., Flaum M., Kirchner P., Cohen G., O'Leary D.S. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;943-958.
9. Arnold S.E., Trojanowski J.Q. Recent advances in defining the neuropathology of schizophrenia. Acta Neuropathol. 92:1996;217-231.
10. Asanuma C., Thach W.T., Jones E.G. Distribution of cerebellar terminations in the ventral lateral thalamic region of the monkey. Brain Res. Rev. 5:1983;237-265.
11. Baker S.C., Rogers R.D., Owen A.M., Frith C.D., Dolan R.J., Frackowiak R.S., Robbins T.W. Neural systems engaged by planning: a PET study of the Tower of London task. Neuropsychologia. 34:1996;515-526.
12. Bauman M., Kemper T.L. Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology. 35:1985;866-874.
13. L.R. Baxter, Neuroimaging studies of obsessive compulsive disorder, in: M.A. Jenike (Ed.), Psychiatric Clinics of North America. Obsessional disorders, Saunders, Philadelphia, 1992, pp. 871-884.
14. Bejjani B., Damier P., Arnulf I., Bonnet A.M., Agid Y. Acute major depression induced by localized electrical stimulation in the human upper midbrain. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 24:1998;227.
15. Berman K.F., Torrey E.F., Daniel D.G., Weinberger D.R. Regional cerebral blood flow in monozygotic twins discordant and concordant for schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;927-934.
16. Bhatia K.P., Marsden C.D. The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. Brain. 117:1994;859-876.
17. Botez M.I., Botez T., Elie R., Attig E. Role of the cerebellum in complex human behavior. Ital. J. Neurol. Sci. 10:1989;291-300.
18. Breier A., Buchanan R.W., Elkashef A., Munson R.C., Kirkpatrick B., Gellad F. Brain morphology and schizophrenia. A magnetic resonance imaging study of limbic, prefrontal cortex, and caudate structures. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;921-926.
19. V.B. Brooks, W.T. Thach, Cerebellar control of posture and movement, in: V.B. Brooks (Ed.), Handbook of physiology, Section 1. The nervous system, Vol. 2, Motor control, Part II, American Physiological Society, Bethesda, 1981, pp. 877-946.
20. Bruce C.J., Goldberg M.E., Bushnell M.C., Stanton G.B. Primate frontal eye fields. II. Physiological and anatomical correlates of electrically evoked eye movements. J. Neurophysiol. 54:1985;714-734.
21. Buchanan R.W., Breier A., Kirkpatrick B., Elkashef A., Munson R.C., Gellad F., Carpenter W.T. Structural abnormalities in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Am. J. Psych. 150:1993;59-65.
22. Buchsbaum M.S., Haier R.J., Potkin S.G., Neuchterlein K., Bracha H.S., Katz M., Lohr J., Wu J., Lottenberg S., Jerabeck P.A., Trenary M., Tafalla R., Reynolds C., Bunney W.E. Frontostriatal disorder of cerebral metabolism in never-medicated schizophrenics. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;935-942.
23. Butters N., Sax D., Montgomery K., Tarlow S. Comparison of the neuropsychological deficits associated with early and advanced Huntington's disease. Arch. Neurol. 35:1978;585-589.
24. Casey B.J., Castellanos F.X., Giedd J.N., Marsh W.L., Hamburger S.D., Schubert A.B., Vauss Y.C., Vaituzis A.C., Dickstein D.P., Sarfatti S.E., Rapoport J.L. Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psych. 36:1997;374-383.
25. Castellanos F.X., Giedd J.N., Marsh W.L., Hamburger S.D., Vaituzis A.C., Dickstein D.P., Sarfatti S.E., Vauss Y.C., Snell J.W., Lange N., Kaysen D., Krain A.L., Ritchie G.F., Rajapakse J.C., Rapoport J.L. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psych. 53:1996;607-616.
26. Courchesne E. Neuroanatomic imaging in autism. Pediatrics. 87:1991;781-790.
27. Courchesne E. Brainstem, cerebellar and limbic neuroanatomical abnormalities in autism. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7:1997;269-278.
28. Courchesne E., Yeung-Courchesne R., Press G.A., Hesselink J.R., Jernigan T.L. Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. N. Engl. J. Med. 318:1988;1349-1354.
29. Csernansky J.G., Murphy G.M., Faustman W.O. Limbic/mesolimbic connections and the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Soc. Biol. Psych. 30:1991;383-400.
30. Cummings J.L. Frontal-subcortical circuits and human behavior. Arch. Neurol. 50:1993;873-880.
31. DeLong M.R. Activity of pallidal neurons during movement. J. Neurophysiol. 34:1971;414-427.
32. M.R. DeLong, A.P. Georgopoulos, Motor functions of the basal ganglia, in: V.B. Brooks (Ed.), Handbook of Physiology, Section 1. The Nervous System, Vol. 2, Motor Control, Part II, American Physiological Society, Bethesda, 1981, pp. 1017-1061.
33. DeLong M.R., Crutcher M.D., Georgopoulos A.P. Primate globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus: functional organization. J. Neurophysiol. 53:1985;530-543.
34. Dewan M.J., Pandurangi A.K., Lee S.H., Ramachandran T., Levy B.F., Boucher M., Yozawitz A., Major L. Cerebellar morphology in chronic schizophrenic patients: a controlled computed tomography study. Psych. Res. 10:1983;97-103.
35. Dewick H.C., Hanley J.R., Davies A.D.M., Playfer J., Turnbull C. Perception and memory for faces in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia. 29:1991;785-802.
36. Divac I., Rosvold H.E., Swarcbart M.K. Behavioral effects of selective ablation of the caudate nucleus. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 63:1967;184-190.
37. Dubois B., Pillon B. Cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. 244:1997;2-8.
38. Early T.S., Reiman E.M., Raichle M.E., Spitznagel E.L. Left globus pallidus abnormality in never-medicated patients with schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 84:1987;561-563.
39. Ebert D., Feistel H., Barocka A., Kaschka W., Mokrusch T. A test-retest study of cerebral blood flow during somatosensory stimulation in depressed patients with schizophrenia and major depression. Eur. Arch. Psych. Clin. Neurosci. 242:1993;250-254.
40. Evarts E.V., Thach W.T. Motor mechanisms of the CNS: cerebrocerebellar interrelations. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 31:1969;451-498.
41. Farina E., Cappa S.F., Polimeni M., Magni E., Canesi M., Zecchinelli A., Scarlato G., Mariani C. Frontal dysfunction in early Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol. Scand. 90:1994;34-38.
42. Fiez J.A., Petersen S.E., Cheney M.K., Raichle M.E. Impaired non-motor learning and error detection associated with cerebellar damage. Brain. 115:1992;155-178.
43. Fiez J.A., Raife E.A., Balota D.A., Schwarz J.P., Raichle M.E., Petersen S.E. A positron emission tomography study of the short-term maintenance of verbal information. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;808-822.
44. Filipek P.A., Semrud-Clikeman M., Steingard R.J., Renshaw P.F., Kennedy D.N., Biederman J. Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology. 48:1997;589-601.
45. Funahashi S., Bruce C.J., Goldman-Rakic P.S. Mnemonic coding of visual space in the monkeys dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 61:1989;331-349.
46. Funahashi S., Inoue M., Kubota K. Delay-period activity in the primate prefrontal cortex encoding multiple spatial positions and their order of presentation. Behav. Brain Res. 84:1997;203-223.
47. J.M. Fuster, The Prefrontal Cortex, Raven Press, New York, 1997.
48. Fuster J.M., Alexander G.E. Neuron activity related to short-term memory. Science. 173:1971;652-654.
49. Fuster J.M., Bauer R.H., Jervey J.P. Cellular discharge in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the monkey in cognitive tasks. Exp. Neurol. 77:1982;679-694.
50. Gaffney G.R., Kuperman S., Tsai L.Y., Minchin S. Forebrain structure in infantile autism. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psych. 8:1989;534-537.
51. Gao J.H., Parsons L.M., Bower J.M., Xiong J., Li J., Fox P.T. Cerebellum implicated in sensory acquisition and discrimination rather than motor control. Science. 272:1996;545-547.
52. P.S. Goldman-Rakic, Circuitry of primate prefrontal cortex and regulation of behavior by representational memory, in: F. Plum (Ed.), Handbook of Physiology, Section 1. The Nervous System, Vol V, American Physiological Society, Bethesda, 1987, pp. 373-413.
53. Grafman J., Litvan I., Massaquoi S., Stewart M., Sirigu A., Hallett M. Cognitive planning deficit in patients with cerebellar atrophy. Neurology. 42:1992;1493-1496.
54. C.G. Gross, Visual functions of inferotemporal cortex, in: R. Jung (Ed.), Handbook of Sensory Physiology, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1972, pp. 451-482.
55. Hamada I., DeLong M.R., Mano N. Activity of identified wrist-related pallidal neurons during step and ramp wrist movements in the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 64:1990;1892-1906.
56. Hamilton N.G., Frick R.B., Takahashi T., Hopping M.W. Psychiatric symptoms and cerebellar pathology. Am. J. Psych. 140:1983;1322-1326.
57. Hashimoto T., Tayama M., Miyazaki M., Murakawa K., Kuroda Y. Brainstem and cerebellar vermis involvement in autistic children. J. Child. Neurol. 8:1993;149-153.
58. Heath R.G., Franklin D.E., Shraberg D. Gross pathology of the cerebellum in patients diagnosed and treated as functional psychiatric disorders. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 167:1979;585-592.
59. Heckers S., Heinsen H., Heinsen Y., Beckman H. Cortex, white matter, and basal ganglia in schizophrenia: a volumetric postmortem study. Biol. Psych. 29:1991;556-566.
60. Heindel W.C., Salmon D.P., Shults C.W., Walicke P.A., Butters N. Neuropsychological evidence for multiple implicit memory systems: a comparison of Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's disease patients. J. Neurosci. 9:1989;582-587.
61. Hikosaka O., Wurtz R.H. Visual and oculomotor functions of monkey substantia nigra pars reticulata. I. Relation of visual and auditory responses to saccades. J. Neurophysiol. 49:1983;1230-1253.
62. Hikosaka O., Sakamoto M., Miyashita N. Effects of caudate nucleus stimulation on substantia nigra cell activity in monkey. Exp. Brain Res. 95:1993;457-472.
63. Holmes G. The cerebellum of man. Brain. 30:1939;466-488.
64. Holroyd S., Reiss A.L., Bryan R.N. Autistic features in Joubert syndrome: a genetic disorder with agenesis of the cerebellar vermis. Biol. Psych. 29:1991;287-294.
65. Hoover J.E., Strick P.L. Multiple output channels in the basal ganglia. Science. 259:1993;819-821.
66. Hoover J.E., Strick P.L. The organization of cerebello- and pallido-thalamic projections to primary motor cortex: an investigation employing retrograde transneuronal transport of herpes simplex virus type 1. J. Neurosci. 19:1999;1446-1463.
67. Hutton S.B., Crawford T.J., Puri B.K., Duncan L.J., Chapman M., Kennard C., Barnes T.R., Joyce E.M. Smooth pursuit and saccadic abnormalities in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 28:1998;685-692.
68. Hutton S., Kennard C. Oculomotor abnormalities in schizophrenia: a critical review. Neurology. 50:1998;604-609.
69. Ilinsky I.A., Jouandet M., Goldman-Rakic P.S. Organization of the nigrothalamocortical system in the rhesus monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 236:1985;315-330.
70. Insel T.R. Toward a neuroanatomy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;739-744.
71. Ivry R.B., Keele S.W. Timing functions of the cerebellum. J. Cog. Neurosci. 1:1989;136-152.
72. Jacobs D.H., Shuren J., Heilman K.M. Impaired perception of facial identity and facial affect in Huntington's disease. Neurology. 45:1995;1217-1218.
73. Jacobs D.H., Shuren J., Heilman K.M. Emotional facial imagery, perception, and expression in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 45:1995;1696-1702.
74. Jenkins I.H., Brooks D.J., Nixon P.D., Frackowiak R.S., Passingham R.E. Motor sequence learning: a study with positron emission tomography. J. Neurosci. 14:1994;3775-3790.
75. Jernigan T.L., Zisook S., Heaton R., Moranville J.T., Hesselink J.R., Braff D.L. Magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in lenticular nuclei and cerebral cortex in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psych. 48:1991;881-890.
76. Joseph A.B., Anderson W.H., O'Leary D.H. Brainstem and vermis atrophy in catatonia. Am. J. Psych. 142:1985;352-354.
77. Jueptner M., Frith C.D., Brooks D.J., Frackowiak R.S., Passingham R.E. Anatomy of motor learning. II. Subcortical structures and learning by trial and error. J. Neurophysiol. 77:1997;1325-1337.
78. Jueptner M., Stephan K.M., Frith C.D., Brooks D.J., Frackowiak R.S., Passingham R.E. Anatomy of motor learning. I. Frontal cortex and attention to action. J. Neurophysiol. 77:1997;1313-1324.
79. Jurjus G.J., Weiss K.M., Jaskiw G.E. Schizophrenia-like psychosis and cerebellar degeneration. Schizophr. Res. 12:1994;183-184.
80. Kemp J.M., Powell T.P.S. The connexions of the striatum and globus pallidus: synthesis and speculation. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 262:1971;441-457.
81. Kim S.-G., Ugurbil K., Strick P.L. Activation of a cerebellar output nucleus during cognitive processing. Science. 265:1994;949-951.
82. Kish S.J., Shannak K., Hornykiewicz O. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. N. Eng. J. Med. 318:1988;876-880.
83. Kubota K., Komatsu H. Neuron activities of monkey prefrontal cortex during the learning of visual discrimination tasks with GO/NO-GO performances. Neurosci. Res. 3:1985;106-129.
84. Kubota K., Niki H. Prefrontal cortical unit activity and delayed alternation performance in monkeys. J. Neurophysiol. 34:1971;337-347.
85. Laplane D., Levasseur M., Pillon B., Dubois B., Baulac M., Mazoyer B., Tran Dinh S., Sette G., Danze F., Baron J.C. Obsessive-compulsive and other behavioural changes with bilateral basal ganglia lesions. Brain. 112:1989;699-725.
86. Lawrence A.D., Sahakian B.J., Hodges J.R., Rosser A.E., Lange K.W., Robbins T.W. Executive and mnemonic functions in early Huntington's disease. Brain. 119:1996;1633-1645.
87. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., Dow R.S. Does the cerebellum contribute to mental skills? Behav. Neurosci. 100:1986;443-454.
88. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., Dow R.S. Cerebro-cerebellar learning loops in apes and humans. Ital. J. Neurol. Sci. 8:1987;425-436.
89. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., Dow R.S. Reappraising the cerebellum: what does the hindbrain contribute to the forebrain? Behav. Neurosci. 103:1989;998-1008.
90. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., Dow R.S. The human cerebro-cerebellar system: its computing, cognitive, and language skills. Behav. Brain. Res. 44:1991;113-128.
91. Leiner H.C., Leiner A.L., Dow R.S. Cognitive and language functions of the human cerebellum. Trends Neurosci. 16:1993;444-447.
92. Levin B.E., Llabre M.M., Weiner W.J. Cognitive impairments associated with early Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 39:1989;557-561.
93. Liddle P.F., Friston K.J., Frith C.D., Hirsch S.R., Jones T., Frackowiak R.S.J. Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. Br. J. Psych. 160:1992;179-186.
94. Lynch J.C., Hoover J.E., Strick P.L. Input to the primate frontal eye field from the substantia nigra, superior colliculus, and dentate nucleus demonstrated by transneuronal transport. Exp. Brain Res. 100:1994;181-186.
95. Martin P., Albers M. Cerebellum and schizophrenia: a selective review. Schiz. Bull. 21:1995;241-250.
96. McGuire P.K., Bench C.J., Frith C.D., Marks I.M., Frackowiak R.S., Dolan R.J. Functional anatomy of obsessive-compulsive phenomena. Br. J. Psych. 164:1994;459-468.
97. McKee A.C., Levine D.N., Kowall N.W., Richardson E.P. Peduncular hallucinosis associated with isolated infarction of the substantia nigra pars reticulata. Ann. Neurol. 27:1990;500-504.
98. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science. 266:1994;458-461.
99. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. The temporal lobe is a target of output from the basal ganglia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:1996;8683-8687.
100. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. New concepts about the organization of basal ganglia output. Adv. Neurol. 74:1997;57-68.
101. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. Dentate output channels: motor and cognitive components. Prog. Brain Res. 114:1997;555-568.
102. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. Cerebellar output channels. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 41:1997;61-82.
103. Middleton F.A., Strick P.L. Cerebellar output: motor and cognitive channels. Trends Cog. Sci. 2:1998;348-351.
104. F.A. Middleton, P.L. Strick, Basal ganglia output and cognition: evidence from anatomical, behavioral and clinical studies, Brain Cogn. (in press).
105. Mink J.W., Thach W.T. Basal ganglia motor control: I. Nonexclusive relation of pallidal discharge to five movement modes. J. Neurophysiol. 65:1991;273-300.
106. Miyachi S., Hikosaka O., Miyashita K., Karadi Z., Rand M.K. Differential roles of monkey striatum in learning of sequential hand movement. Exp. Brain Res. 115:1997;1-5.
107. Miyashita Y. Inferior temporal cortex: where visual perception meets memory. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 16:1993;245-263.
108. Miyata M., Sasaki K. HRP studies on thalamocortical neurons related to the cerebellocerebral projection in the monkey. Brain Res. 274:1983;213-224.
109. Modell J.G., Mountz J.M., Curtis G.C., Greden J.F. Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Neuropsych. 1:1989;27-36.
110. Molinari M., Leggio M.G., Solida A., Ciorra R., Misciagna S., Silveri M.C., Petrosini L. Cerebellum and procedural learning: evidence from focal cerebellar lesions. Brain. 120:1997;1753-1762.
111. Mushiake H., Strick P.L. Preferential activity of dentate neurons during limb movements guided by vision. J. Neurophysiol. 70:1993;2660-2664.
112. Mushiake H., Strick P.L. Pallidal neuron activity during sequential arm movements. J. Neurophysiol. 74:1995;2754-2758.
113. Mushiake H., Strick P.L. Cerebellar and pallidal activity during instructed delay periods. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 21:1995;411.
114. Nasrallah H.A., Schwarzkopf S.B., Olson S.C., Coffman J.A. Perinatal brain injury and cerebellar vermal lobules I-X in schizophrenia. Biol. Psych. 29:1991;567-574.
115. Niki H., Watanabe M. Prefrontal unit activity and delayed response: relation to cue location versus direction of response. Brain Res. 105:1976;79-88.
116. J. Olszewski, The Thalamus of Macaca Mulatta. An Atlas for Use with the Stereotaxic Instrument, Karger, Basel, 1952.
117. Orioli P.J., Strick P.L. Cerebellar connections with the motor cortex and the arcuate premotor area: an analysis employing retrograde transneuronal transport of WGA-HRP. J. Comp. Neurol. 288:1989;612-626.
118. Owen A.M., Beksinska M., James M., Leigh P.N., Summers B.A., Marsden C.D., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Visuospatial memory deficits at different stages of Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia. 31:1993;627-644.
119. Owen A.M., Doyon J., Dagher A., Sadikot A., Evans A.C. Abnormal basal ganglia outflow in Parkinson's disease identified with PET. Implications for higher cortical functions. Brain. 121:1998;949-965.
120. Owen A.M., Doyon J., Petrides M., Evans A.C. Planning and spatial working memory: a positron emission tomography study in humans. Eur. J. Neurosci. 8:1996;353-364.
121. Owen A.M., James M., Leigh P.N., Summers B.A., Marsden C.D., Quinn N.P., Lange K.W., Robbins T.W. Fronto-striatal cognitive deficits at different stages of Parkinson's disease. Brain. 115:1992;1727-1751.
122. Palfi S., Ferrante R.J., Brouillet E., Beal M.F., Dolan R., Guyot M.C., Peschanski M., Hantraye P. Chronic 3-nitropropionic acid treatment in baboons replicates the cognitive and motor deficits of Huntington's disease. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;3019-3025.
123. Park S., Holzman P.S. Schizophrenics show spatial working memory deficits. Arch. Gen. Psych. 49:1992;975-982.
124. Partiot A., Verin M., Pillon B., Teixeira-Ferreira C., Agid Y., Dubois B. Delayed response tasks in basal ganglia lesions in man: further evidence for a striato-frontal cooperation in behavioural adaptation. Neuropsychologia. 34:1996;709-721.
125. Pascual-Leone A., Grafman J., Clark K., Stewart M., Massaquoi S., Lou J.S., Hallett M. Procedural learning in Parkinson's disease and cerebellar degeneration. Ann. Neurol. 34:1993;594-602.
126. R. Passingham, The frontal lobes and voluntary action, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993.
127. Petersen S.E., Fox P.T., Posner M.I., Mintun M., Raichle M.E. Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing. Nature. 331:1988;585-589.
128. Raichle M.E., Fiez J.A., Videen T.O., MacLeod A.M., Pardo J.V., Fox P.T., Petersen S.E. Practice-related changes in human brain functional anatomy during nonmotor learning. Cereb. Cortex. 4:1994;8-26.
129. Rispal-Padel L., Cicirata F., Pons C. Cerebellar nuclear topography of simple and synergistic movements in the alert baboon (Papio papio). Exp. Brain Res. 47:1982;365-380.
130. Robinson D., Wu H., Munne R.A., Ashtari M., Alvir J.M., Lerner G., Koreen A., Cole K., Bogerts B. Reduced caudate nucleus volume in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psych. 52:1995;393-398.
131. Roeltgen D.P., Schneider J.S. Task persistence and learning ability in normal and chronic low dose MPTP-treated monkeys. Behav. Brain Res. 60:1994;115-124.
132. Rouiller E.M., Liang F., Babalian A., Moret V., Wiesendanger M. Cerebellothalamocortical and pallidothalamocortical projections to the primary and supplementary motor cortical areas: a multiple tracing study in macaque monkeys. J. Comp. Neurol. 345:1994;185-231.
133. Saint-Cyr J.A., Taylor A.E., Lang A.E. Procedural learning and neostriatal dysfunction in man. Brain. 111:1988;941-959.
134. Saint-Cyr J.A., Ungerleider L.G., Desimone R. Organization of visual cortical inputs to the striatum and subsequent outputs to the pallido-nigral complex in the monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 298:1990;129-156.
135. Sasaki K., Kawaguchi S., Oka H., Sakai M., Mizuno N. Electrophysiological studies on the cerebello-cerebral projections in monkeys. Exp. Brain Res. 24:1976;495-507.
136. Sasaki K., Jinnai K., Gemba H., Hashimoto S., Mizuno N. Projection of the cerebellar dentate nucleus onto the frontal association cortex in monkeys. Exp. Brain Res. 37:1979;193-198.
137. Schmahmann J.D. An emerging concept. The cerebellar contribution to higher function. Arch. Neurol. 48:1991;1178-1187.
138. Schmahmann J.D. Rediscovery of an early concept. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 41:1997;3-27.
139. Schmahmann J.D., Pandya D.N. Anatomic organization of the basilar pontine projections from prefrontal cortices in rhesus monkey. J. Neurosci. 17:1997;438-458.
140. Schmahmann J.D., Pandya D.N. The cerebrocerebellar system. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 41:1997;31-60.
141. Schneider J.S., Pope-Coleman A. Cognitive deficits precede motor deficits in a slowly progressing model of parkinsonism in the monkey. Neurodegen. 4:1995;245-255.
142. Schneider J.S., Roeltgen D.P. Delayed matching-to-sample, object retrieval, and discrimination reversal deficits in chronic low dose MPTP-treated monkeys. Brain Res. 615:1993;351-354.
143. Schwartz J.M., Stoessel P.W., Baxter L.R. Jr., Martin K.M., Phelps M.E. Systematic changes in cerebral glucose metabolic rate after successful behavior modification treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psych. 53:1996;109-113.
144. Selemon L.D., Rajkowska G., Goldman-Rakic P.S. Abnormally high neuronal density in the schizophrenic cortex. A morphometric analysis of prefrontal area 9 and occipital area 17. Arch. Gen. Psych. 52:1995;805-818.
145. R.C. Shelton, D.R. Weinberger, X-ray computerized tomography studies in schizophrenia: a review and synthesis, in: H.A. Nasrallah, D.R. Weinberger (Eds.), Handbook of Schizophrenia, Elsevier, New York, 1986, pp. 207-250.
146. Siegel B.V., Buchsbaum M.S., Bunney W.E., Gottschalk L.A., Haier J., Lohr J.B., Lottenberg S., Najafi A., Neuchterlein K.H., Potkin S.G., Wu J.C. Cortical-striatal-thalamic circuits and brain glucose metabolic activity in 70 unmedicated male schizophrenic patients. Am. J. Psych. 150:1993;1325-1336.
147. Silbersweig D.A., Stern E., Frith C., Cahill C., Holmes A., Grootoonk S., Seaward J., McKenna P., Chua S.E., Schnorr L., Jones T., Frackowiak R.S.J. A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Nature. 378:1995;176-179.
148. Snider S.R. Cerebellar pathology in schizophrenia - cause or consequence? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 6:1982;47-53.
149. Steinberg J.L., Devous M.D., Moeller F.G., Paulman R.G., Raese J.D., Gregory R.R. Cerebellar blood flow in schizophrenic patients and normal control subjects. Psych. Res. 61:1995;15-31.
150. P.L. Strick, J.P. Card, Transneuronal mapping of neural circuits with alpha herpesviruses, in: J.P. Bolam (Ed.), Experimental Neuroanatomy: A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992, pp. 81-101.
151. P.L. Strick, R.P. Dum, H. Mushiake, Basal ganglia 'loops' with the cerebral cortex, in: M. Kimura, A.M. Graybiel (Eds.), Functions of the cortico-basal ganglia loop, Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, 1995, pp. 106-124.
152. P.L. Strick, J.E. Hoover, H. Mushiake, Evidence for "output channels" in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, in: N. Mano, I. Hamada, M.R. DeLong (Eds.), Role of the Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia in Voluntary Movement, Elsevier, Ameterdam, 1993, pp. 171-180.
153. Strub R.L. Frontal lobe syndrome in a patient with bilateral globus pallidus lesions. Arch. Neurol. 46:1989;1024-1027.
154. Swayze V.W., Andreasen N.C., Alliger R.J., Yuh W.T., Ehrhardt J.C. Subcortical and temporal structures in affective disorder and schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol. Psych. 31:1992;221-240.
155. Swedo S.E., Schapiro M.B., Grady C.L., Cheslow D.L., Leonard H.L., Kumar A., Friedland R., Rapoport S.I., Rapoport J.L. Cerebral glucose metabolism in childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psych. 46:1989;518-523.
156. Swerdlow N.R., Koob G.F. Dopamine, schizophrenia, mania, and depression: toward a unified hypothesis of cortico-striato-pallido-thalamic function. Behav. Brain Sci. 10:1987;197-245.
157. Tanaka K., Saito H.-A., Fukuda Y., Moriya M. Coding visual images of objects in the inferotemporal cortex of the macaque monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 66:1991;170-189.
158. Taylor A.E., Saint-Cyr J.A., Lang A.E. Memory and learning in early Parkinson's disease: evidence for a "frontal lobe syndrome" Brain Cogn. 13:1990;211-232.
159. Thach W.T., Perry J.G., Kane S.A., Goodkin H.P. Cerebellar nuclei: rapid alternating movement, motor somatotopy, and a mechanisms for the control of muscle synergy. Rev. Neurol. (Paris). 149:1993;607-628.
160. Trepanier L.L., Saint-Cyr J.A., Lozano A.M., Lang A.E. Neuropsychological consequences of posteroventral pallidotomy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 51:1998;207-215.
161. Trivedi M.H. Functional neuroanatomy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Clin. Psych. 57:1996;26-36.
162. van Kan P.L.E., Houk J.C., Gibson A.R. Output organization of intermediate cerebellum of the monkey. J. Neurophysiol. 69:1993;57-73.
163. Volkow N.D. Low cerebellar metabolism in medicated patients with chronic schizophrenia. Am. J. Psych. 149:1992;686-688.
164. vonSattel J.P., Myers R.H., Stevens T.J., Ferrante R.J., Bird E.D., Richardson E.P. Neuropathological classification of Huntington's disease. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 44:1985;559-577.
165. Walker A.E. A cytoarchitectural study of the prefrontal area of the macaque monkey. J. Comp. Neurol. 73:1940;59-86.
166. Walker E.F. Developmentally moderated expressions of the neuropathology underlying schizophrenia. Schiz. Bull. 20:1994;453-480.
167. Weinberger D.R., Torrey E.F., Wyatt R.J. Cerebellar atrophy in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet. 1:1979;718-719.
168. Wetts R., Kalaska J.F., Smith A.M. Cerebellar nuclear activity during contraction and reciprocal inhibition of forearm muscles. J. Neurophysiol. 54:1985;231-244.
169. Wiesendanger R., Wiesendanger M. Cerebello-cortical linkage in the monkey as revealed by transcellular labeling with the lectin wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to the marker horseradish peroxidase. Exp. Brain Res. 59:1985;105-117.
170. Wilson F.A., O'Scalaidhe S.P., Goldman-Rakic P.S. Dissociation of object and spatial processing domains in primate prefrontal cortex. Science. 260:1994;1995-1997.
171. Wilson S.A.K. Progressive lenticular degeneration. Brain. 34:1912;295-509.
172. S.P. Wise, J.L. Rapoport, Obsessive-compulsive disorder: is it basal ganglia dysfunction, in: J.L. Rapoport (Ed.), Obsessive compulsive disorder in children and adolescents, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, D.C., 1992, pp. 327-344.
173. Wolf S.S., Jones D.W., Knable M.B., Gorey J.G., Lee K.S., Hyde T.M., Coppola R., Weinberger D.R. Tourette syndrome: prediction of phenotypic variation in monozygotic twins by caudate nucleus D2 receptor binding. Science. 273:1996;1225-1227.
174. Yamamoto T., Yoshida K., Yoshikawa Y., Kishimoto Y., Oka H. The medial dorsal nucleus is one of the thalamic relays of the cerebellocerebral response to the frontal association cortex in the monkey: horseradish peroxidase and fluorescent dye double staining study. Brain Res. 579:1992;315-320.
175. Yates W.R., Jacoby C.G., Andreasen N.C. Cerebellar atrophy in schizophrenia and affective disorder. Am. J. Psych. 144:1987;465-467.
176. Yoshida S., Nambu A., Jinnai K. The distribution of the globus pallidus neurons with input from various cortical areas in the monkeys. Brain Res. 611:1993;170-174.
177. Zemanick M.C., Strick P.L., Dix R.D. Transneuronal transport of herpes simplex virus type 1 in the primate motor system: transport direction is strain dependent. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 88:1991;8048-8051.