A flexible method for multi-material decomposition of dual-energy CT images

IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 99-116

  Mendonca, Paulo R S ^a   Lamb, Peter ^a   Sahani, Dushyant V ^b  

^a GE GLOBAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Computed tomography (CT); dual energy CT; liver fat quantification; material decomposition; virtual un enhancement

Indexed keywords

CLINICAL APPLICATION; COMPLEX COMPOSITIONS; CONSTITUENT MATERIALS; DUAL-ENERGY CT; IMAGE ANALYSIS ALGORITHMS; LIVER-FAT QUANTIFICATION; MATERIAL DECOMPOSITION; VIRTUAL UN-ENHANCEMENT;

COREMAKING; DIAGNOSIS; DISEASES; IMAGE ANALYSIS; MIXTURES;

COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY;

CONTRAST MEDIUM;

ALGORITHM; ARTICLE; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY SCANNER; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; CONTROLLED STUDY; DECOMPOSITION; DUAL ENERGY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; FATTY LIVER; GOLD STANDARD; HUMAN; IMAGE ANALYSIS; IMAGING SYSTEM; LIVER FAT QUANTIFICATION; MULTIMATERIAL DECOMPOSITION; UROGRAPHY; VIRTUAL REALITY; VIRTUAL UNENHANCEMENT; WORKFLOW; COMPUTER ASSISTED DIAGNOSIS; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; PHOTON ABSORPTIOMETRY; PROCEDURES; RADIOGRAPHY; REPRODUCIBILITY; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

ABSORPTIOMETRY, PHOTON; ALGORITHMS; HUMANS; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; IMAGE INTERPRETATION, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; RADIOGRAPHY, DUAL-ENERGY SCANNED PROJECTION; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 84892427506     PISSN: 02780062     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TMI.2013.2281719     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. M. van Straten, M. Schaap,M. L. Dijkshoorn, M. J. Greuter, A. van der Lugt, G. P. Krestin, and W. J. Niessen, "Automated bone removal in CT angiography: Comparison of methods based on single energy and dual energy scans," Med. Phys., vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 6128-6137, Nov. 2011.
2. B. M. Yeh, J. A. Shepherd, Z. J.Wang, H. S. Teh, R. P. Hartman, and S. Prevrhal, "Dual-energy and low-kVp CT in the abdomen," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 193, no. 1, pp. 47-54, Jul. 2009.
3. D. N.Tran,M.Straka, J. E. Roos,S.Napel, andD.Fleischmann, "Dualenergy CT discrimination of iodine and calcium: Experimental results and implications for lower extremity CT angiography," Acad. Radiol., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 160-171, Feb. 2009.
4. A. Narayanan, P. Shah, and B. Das, "Design of spectral filtering for tissue classification," in Proc. SPIE, D. H. Haynor and S. Ourselin, Eds., Feb. 2012, vol. 8314, pp. 83142R-83142R-6.
5. M. C. Joshi, P. R. S. Mendonça, D. R. Okerlund, P. Lamb, N. Kulkarni, D. V. Sahani, and R. Bhotika, "Initial evaluation of virtual un-enhanced imaging derived from fast kVp-switching dual energy contrast enhanced CT for the abdomen," in Proc. SPIE Med. Imag., Feb. 2011, pp. 7962-51.
6. A. Graser, T. R. C. Johnson, E. M. Hecht, C. R. Becker, C. Leidecker, M. Staehler, C. G. Stief, H. Hildebrandt, M. C. B. Godoy, M. E. Finn, F. Stepansky, M. F. Reiser, and M. Macari, "Dual-energy CT in patients suspected of having renal masses: Can virtual nonenhanced images replace true nonenhanced images?," Radiology, vol. 252, no. 2, pp. 433-440, Aug. 2009.
7. C. L. Brown, R. P. Hartman, O. P. Dzyubak, N. Takahashi, A. Kawashima, C. H. McCollough, M. R. Bruesewitz, A. M. Primak, and J. G. Fletcher, "Dual-energy CT iodine overlay technique for characterization of renal masses as cyst or solid: A phantom feasibility study," Eur. Radiol., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1289-1295, May 2009.
8. A. Graser, C. R. Becker, M. Staehler, D. A. Clevert, M. Macari, N. Arndt, K. Nikolaou, W. Sommer, C. Stief, M. F. Reiser, and T. R. C. Johnson, "Single-phase dual-energy CT allows for characterization of renal masses as benign or malignant," Invest. Radiol., vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 399-405, Jul. 2010.
9. S. Leschka, P. Stolzmann, S. Baumüller, H. Scheffel, L. Desbiolles, B. Schmid, B. Marincek, and H. Alkadhi, "Performance of dual-energy CT with tin filter technology for the discrimination of renal cysts and enhancing masses," Acad. Radiol., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 526-534, Apr. 2010.
10. L.-J. Zhang, J. Peng, S.-Y. Wu, Z. J. Wang, X.-S. Wu, C.-S. Zhou, X.-M. Ji, and G.-M. Lu, "Liver virtual non-enhanced CT with dualsource, dual-energy CT: A preliminary study," Eur. Radiol., vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 2257-2264, Sep. 2010.
11. W.H. Sommer, A. Graser,C.R.Becker, D. A. Clevert, M. F. Reiser,K. Nikolaou, and T. R. C. Johnson, "Image quality of virtual noncontrast images derived from dual-energy CT angiography after endovascular aneurysm repair," J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol., vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 315-321, Mar. 2010.
12. D. J. Brenner and E. J. Hall, "Computed tomography-An increasing source of radiation exposure," N. Eng. J. Med., vol. 357, no. 22, pp. 2277-2284, Nov. 2007.
13. D. J. Brenner and C. D. Elliston, "Estimated radiation risks potentially associated with full-body CT screening," Radiology, vol. 232, no. 3, pp. 735-738, Sept. 2004.
14. R. Longo, C. Ricci, F.Masutti, R. Vidimari, L. S. Crocé, L. Bercich, C. Tiribelli, and L. D. Palma, "Fatty infiltration of the liver. Quantification by 1H localizedmagnetic resonance spectroscopy and comparison with computed tomography," Invest. Radiol., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 297-302, Apr. 1993.
15. B. Wang, Z. Gao, Q. Zou, and L. Li, "Quantitative diagnosis of fatty liver with dual-energy CT: An experimental study in rabbits," Acta Radiol., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 92-97, Jan. 2003.
16. D. Duman, C. Celikel, D. Tüney, N. Imeryüz, E. Avsar, and N. Tözün, "Computed tomography in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease," Digest. Diseases Sci., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 346-351, Feb. 2006.
17. N. Mennesson, J. Dumortier, V. Hervieu, L. Milot, O. Guillaud, J.-Y. Scoazec, and F. Pilleul, "Liver steatosis quantification using magnetic resonance imaging: A prospective comparative study with liver biopsy," J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr., vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 672-677, Sept./Oct. 2009.
18. A. Kriston, P. R. S. Mendonça, A. C. Silva, R. G. Paden, W. Pavlicek, D. V. Sahani, L. Rusko, D. R. Okerlund, and R. Bhotika, "Liver fat quantification using fast kVp-switching dual energy CT," in Proc. SPIE Med. Imag., Feb. 2011, pp. 7962-139.
19. A. J. Sanyal, American Gastroenterological Association, "AGA technical review on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease," Gastroenterology, vol. 123, no. 5, pp. 1705-1725, Nov. 2002.
20. J. P. Schlomka, E. Roessl, R. Dorscheid, S. Dill, G. Martens, T. Istel, C. Bumer, C. Herrmann, R. Steadman, G. Zeitler, A. Livne, and R. Proksa, "Experimental feasibility of multi-energy photon-counting K-edge imaging in pre-clinical computed tomography," Phys. Med. Biol., vol. 53, no. 15, pp. 4031-4047, Aug. 2008.
21. X. Liu, L. Yu, A. N. Primak, and C. H. McCollough, "Quantitative imaging of element composition and mass fraction using dual-energy CT: Three-material decomposition," Med. Phys., vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 1602-1609, May 2009.
22. H. Q. Le and S. Molloi, "Segmentation and quantification of materials with energy discriminating computed tomography: A phantom study," Med. Phys., vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 228-237, Jan. 2011.
23. L. Yu, X. Liu, and C. H. McCollough, "Pre-reconstruction three-material decomposition in dual-energy CT," in Proc. SPIE, San Diego, CA, Feb. 2009, vol. 7258, pp. 72583V-72583V-8.
24. Y. Long and J. A. Fessler, "Multi-material decomposition using statistical image reconstruction in X-ray CT," in Proc. 2nd Int. Meet. Image Formation X-Ray CT, 2012, pp. 413-416.
25. P. R. S. Mendonça, R. Bhotika, B. W. Thomsen, P. E. Licato, and M. C. Joshi, "Multi-material decomposition of spectral CT images," in Proc. SPIE Med. Imag., Feb. 2010, vol. 7622, pp. 76221W-76221W-9.
26. F. Kelcz, P. M. Joseph, and S. K. Hilal, "Noise considerations in dual energy CT scanning," Med. Phys., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 418-428, Sep./Oct. 1979.
27. W. A. Kalender, E. Klotz, and L. Kostaridou, "An algorithm for noise suppression in dual energy CT material density images," IEEE Trans. Med. Imag., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 218-224, Sep. 1988.
28. G. N. Hounsfield, "Computerized transverse axial scanning (tomography): Part 1. Description of system," Br. J. Radiol., vol. 46, pp. 1016-1022, Dec. 1973.
29. I. David, R. Holmes, J. G. Fletcher, A. Apel, J. E. Huprich, H. Siddiki, D. M. Hough, B. Schmidt, T. G. Flohr, R. Robb, C. McCollough, M. Wittmer, and C. Eusemann, "Evaluation of non-linear blending in dual-energy computed tomography," Eur. J. Radiol., vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 409-413, Dec. 2008.
30. T. R. C. Johnson, C. Fink, S. O. Schönberg, and M. F. Reiser, Eds., Dual Energy CT in Clinical Practice, ser. Medical radiology-Diagnositic imaging. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2011.
31. J. H. Hubbell and S. M. Seltzer, Tables of X-ray mass attenuation coefficients and mass energy-absorption coefficients Nat. Inst. Standards Technol., Gaithersburg, MD, USA, Tech. Rep. NISTIR 5632, May 1995 [Online]. Available: http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRef-Data/Xcom/html/xcom1.html, [Online]. Available:
32. R. E. Alvarez and E. Seppi, "A comparison of noise and dose in conventional and energy selective computed tomography," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 2853-2856, Apr. 1979.
33. L. A. Lehmann, R. E. Alvarez, A. Macovski, W. R. Brody, N. J. Pelc, S. J. Riederer, and A. L. Hall, "Generalized image combinations in dual KVP digital radiography," Med. Phys., vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 659-667, Sep./Oct. 1981.
34. J. F. Williamson, S. Li, S. Devic, B. R. Whiting, and F. A. Lerma, "On two-parameter models of photon cross sections: Applications to dual-energy CT imaging," Med. Phys., vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 4115-4129, Nov. 2006.
35. J. Hsieh, Computed Tomography: Principles, Design, Artifacts, and Recent Advances. Bellingham, WA, USA: SPIE, 2003.
36. A. A. Zamyatin, A. Natarajan, and Y. Zou, "Advanced material separation technique based on dual energy CT scanning," in Proc. SPIE, San Diego, CA, Feb. 2009, vol. 7258, pp. 725844-725844-10.
37. M. A. Clemens, M. Baer, and M. Kachelrieß, "Image-based dual energy CT using optimized precorrection functions: A practical new approach of material decomposition in image domain," Med. Phys., vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 3818-3829, Aug. 2009.
38. X.Wu, D.A. Langan,D.Xu, T. M. Benson, J.D. Pack, A.M. Schmitz, J. E. Tkaczyk, J. Leverentz, and P. E. Licato, "Monochromatic CT image representation via fast switching dual kVp," in Proc. SPIE Med. Imag., E. Samei and J. Hsieh, Eds., Feb. 2009, vol. 7258.
39. J. Hsieh, N. Chandra, D. Langan, M. S. Kulpins, X. Wu, and P. E. Licato, "Dual-energy X-ray CT with fast-kVp switch," presented at the 51st AAPM Anu. Meet., Anaheim, CA, USA, Jul. 2009.
40. ICRU, Tissue substitutes in radiation dosimetry and measurement Int. Commission Radiat. Units Measure., Behtesda, MD, USA, Tech. Rep. 44, Jan. 1989.
41. E. B. Millard, Physical Chemistry for Colleges: A Course of Instruction Based Upon the Fundamental Laws of Chemistry, ser. Int. Chem. Ser. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1921.
42. H. Orbey and S. I. Sandler, "On the combination of equation of state and excess free energy models," Fluid Phase Equilibria, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 53-70, Oct. 1995.
43. H. S. M. Coxeter, Introduction to Geometry, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1969.
44. J. E. Hopcroft, D. P. Huttenlocher, and P. C.Wayner, "Affine invariant for model-based recognition," in Geometric Invariance in Computer Vision, ser. Artificial Intelligence Series, J. L. Mundy and A. Zisserman, Eds. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press, 1992, ch. 18, pp. 355-374.
45. S. Feuerlein, E. Roessl, R. Proksa, G. Martens, O. Klass,M. Jeltsch, V. Rasche, H.-J.Brambs, M. H. K. Hoffmann, and J.-P. Schlomka, "Multienergy photon-counting K-edge imaging: Potential for improved luminal depiction in vascular imaging," Radiology, vol. 249, no. 3, pp. 1010-1016, Dec. 2008.
46. S. Kappler, A. Henning, B. Krauss, F. Schoeck, K. Stierstorfer, T.Weidinger, and T. Flohr, "Multi-energy performance of a research prototype CT scanner with small-pixel counting detector," in Proc. SPIE, Feb. 2013, vol. 8668, pp. 86680O-86680O-8.
47. F. Pugliese, "Gadolinium-enhanced coronary CT angiography: Improved safety?," Heart, vol. 96, no. 19, pp. 1513-1515, 2010.
48. A. Okabe, B. Boots, K. Sugihara, and S. N. Chiu, Spatial Tesselations, ser. Wiley Ser. Probab. Stat., 2nd ed. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 2000.
49. "CT accreditation phantom instructions," Am. College Radiol., May 2013.
50. T. J. Vrtiska, N. Takahashi, J. G. Fletcher, R. P. Hartman, L. Yu, and A. Kawashima, "Genitourinary applications of dual-energy CT," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 194, no. 6, pp. 1434-1442, Jun. 2010.
51. R. Spendiff and A. Rockall, "Imaging assessment of renal masses," Imaging, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 205-214, Sep. 2008.
52. R. K. Kaza, E. M. Caoili, R. H. Cohan, and J. F. Platt, "Distinguishing enhancing from nonenhancing renal lesions with fast kilovoltage-switching dual-energy CT," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 197, no. 6, pp. 1375-1381, Dec. 2011.
53. G. M. Israel andM.A. Bosniak, "How I do it: Evaluating renal masses," Radiology, vol. 236, no. 2, pp. 441-450, Aug. 2005.
54. G. M. Israel and M. A. Bosniak, "Pitfalls in renal mass evaluation and how to avoid them," Radiographics, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1325-1338, 2008.
55. M. Karçaalt?ncaba and A. Akta?, "Dual-energy CT revisited with multidetector CT: Review of principles and clinical applications," Diagnost. Intervent. Radiol., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 181-194, Sep. 2011.
56. M. Maddah, P. R. S. Mendonça, and R. Bhotika, "Physically meaningful virtual unenhanced image reconstruction from dual-energy CT," in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Biomed. Imag.: From Nano to Macro, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, Apr. 2010, pp. 808-811.
57. T. R. C. Johnson, B. Krauß, M. Sedlmair, M. Grasruck, H. Bruder, D. Morhard, C. Fink, S. Weckbach, M. Lenhard, B. Schmidt, T. Flohr, M. F. Reiser, and C. R. Becker, "Material differentiation by dual energy CT: Initial experience," Eur. Radiol., vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 1510-1517, Jun. 2007.
58. Y.-C. Lin, S.-C. Chou, P.-T. Huang, and H.-Y. Chiou, "Risk factors and predictors of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Taiwan," Ann. Hepatol., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 125-132, Apr.-Jun. 2011.
59. K. Asano, E. Bayram, H. Yu, and S. B. Reeder, "Quantitative fat imaging for evaluating diffuse liver diseases," SignaPULSE, pp. 75-78, 2011.
60. Y. Kodama, C. S. Ng, T. T. Wu, G. D. Ayers, S. A. Curley, E. K. Abdalla, J. N. Vauthey, and C. Charnsangavej, "Comparison of CT methods for determining the fat content of the liver," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 188, no. 5, pp. 1307-1312, May 2007.
61. N. F. Schwenzer, F. Springer, C. Schraml, N. Stefan, J. Machann, and F. Schick, "Non-invasive assessment and quantification of liver steatosis by ultrasound, computed tomography and magnetic resonance," J. Hepatol., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 433-445, Sep. 2009.
62. K. D. Patel, K. W. M. Abeysekera, M. Marlais, M. J. W. McPhail, H. C. Thomas, J. A. Fitzpatrick, A. K. P. Lim, S. D. Taylor-Robinson, and E. L. Thomas, "Recent advances in imaging hepatic fibrosis and steatosis," Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 91-104, Feb. 2011.
63. A. Szymczak, K. Simon, M. Inglot, and A. Gladysz, "Safety and effectiveness of blind percutaneous liver biopsy: Analysis of 1412 procedures," Hepatitis Monthly, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 32-37, Jan. 2012.
64. F. M. Sanai and E. B. Keeffe, "Liver biopsy for histological assessment: The case against," Saudi J. Gastroenterol., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 124-132, Apr. 2010.
65. D.E. Kleiner,E.M. Brunt,M.V. Natta, C. Behling, M. J. Contos,O.W. Cummings, L. D. Ferrell, Y.-C. Liu, M. S. Torbenson, A. Unalp-Arida, M. Yeh, A. J. McCullough, and A. J. Sanyal, Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis Clinical Research Network, "Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease," Hepatology, vol. 41, no. 6, pp. 1313-1321, June 2005.
66. D. Joy, V. R. Thava, and B. B. Scott, "Diagnosis of fatty liver disease: Is biopsy necessary?," Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 539-543, May 2003.
67. B. Taouli, R. L. Ehman, and S. B. Reeder, "Advanced MRI methods for assessment of chronic liver disease," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 193, no. 1, pp. 14-27, July 2009.
68. P.A.Yushkevich, J. Piven, H. C. Hazlett,R.G. Smith, S.Ho, J. C. Gee, and G.Gerig, "User-guided 3D active contour segmentation of anatomical structures: Significantly improved efficiency and reliability," Neuroimage, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 1116-1128, 2006.
69. S. B. Reeder, P. M. Robson, H. Yu, A. Shimakawa, C. D. G. Hines, C. A. McKenzie, and J. H. Brittain, "Quantification of hepatic steatosis with MRI: The effects of accurate fat spectral modeling," J. Magn. Reson. Imag., vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 1332-1339, Jun. 2009.
70. H. Chandarana, M. C. B. Godoy, I. Vlahos, A. Graser, J. Babb, C. Leidecker, and M. Macari, "Abdominal aorta: Evaluation with dual-source dual-energy multidetector CT after endovascular repair of aneurysms-Initial observations," Radiology, vol. 249, no. 2, pp. 692-700, Nov. 2008.
71. M. F. Reiser, C. R. Becker, K. Nikolaou, and G. Glazer, Eds., Multislice CT, ser.Medical radiol.-Diagnostic imaging Radiat. Oncol., 3rd ed. New York: Springer, 2009.
72. J. E. Jacobs, B. A. Birnbaum, M. A. Shapiro, C. P. Langlotz, F. Slosman, S. E. Rubesin, and S. C. Horii, "Diagnostic criteria for fatty infiltration of the liver on contrast-enhanced helical CT," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 171, no. 3, pp. 659-664, Sept. 1998.
73. R. Cabrera and D. R. Nelson, "Review article: The management of hepatocellular carcinoma," Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 461-476, Feb. 2010.
74. S. H. Kim, "Hepatic applications of dual-energy CT: Clinical opportunities," in Proc. MICCAI Workshop on Computational Challenges and Clinical Opportunities in Virtual Colonoscopy and Abdominal Imaging, H. Yoshida and W. Cai, Eds., Sep. 2010, pp. 67-70.
75. M. Toepker, T. Moritz, B. Krauss, M. Weber, G. Euller, T. Mang, F. Wolf, C. J. Herold, and H. Ringl, "Virtual non-contrast in second-generation, dual-energy computed tomography: Reliability of attenuation values," Eur. J. Radiol., vol. 81, no. 3, pp. e398-e405, Mar. 2012.
76. X. Chen, K. Q. Schwarz, D. Phillips, S. D. Steinmetz, and R. Schlief, "A mathematical model for the assessment of hemodynamic parameters using quantitative contrast echocardiography," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 754-765, Jun. 1998.
77. C.-Y. Liu, C. A.McKenzie, H. Yu, J. H. Brittain, and S. B. Reeder, "Fat quantification with IDEAL gradient echo imaging: Correction of bias from and noise," Magn. Reson. Med., vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 354-364, Aug. 2007.
78. M. Bydder, T. Yokoo, G. Hamilton, M. S. Middleton, A. D. Chavez, J. B. Schwimmer, J. E. Lavine, and C. B. Sirlin, "Relaxation effects in the quantification of fat using gradient echo imaging," Magn. Reson. Imag., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 347-359, Apr. 2008.
79. H. Yu, C. A. McKenzie, A. Shimakawa, A. T. Vu, A. C. S. Brau, P. J. Beatty, A. R. Pineda, J. H. Brittain, and S. B. Reeder, "Multiecho reconstruction for simultaneous water-fat decomposition and estimation," J. Magn. Reson. Imag., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 1153-1161, Oct. 2007.
80. H.Yu,A. Shimakawa, C. A. McKenzie, E. Brodsky, J.H. Brittain, and S. B. Reeder, "Multiecho water-fat separation and simultaneous estimation with multifrequency fat spectrum modeling," Magn. Reson. Med., vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 1122-1134, Nov. 2008.
81. H. Yu, A. Shimakawa, S. B. Reeder, C. A.McKenzie, and J. H. Brittain, "Magnitude fitting following phase sensitive water-fat separation to remove effects of phase errors," in Proc. Int. Soc. Magn. Reson. Med., Honolulu, HI, USA, Apr. 2009, p. 461.
82. H. H. Hu, P. Börnert, D. Hernando, P. Kellman, J. Ma, S. Reeder, and C. Sirlin, "ISMRM workshop on fat-water separation: Insights, applications and progress in MRI," Magn. Reson. Med., vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 378-388, Aug. 2012.
83. V. Raptopoulos, A. Karellas, J. Bernstein, F. R. Reale, C. Constantinou, and J. K. Zawacki, "Value of dual-energy CT in differentiating focal fatty infiltration of the liver from low-density masses," Am. J. Roentgenol., vol. 157, no. 4, pp. 721-725, Oct. 1991.
84. M.-H. Mendler, P. Bouillet, A. L. Sidaner, E. Lavoine, F. Labrousse, D. Sautereau, and B. Pillegand, "Dual-energy CT in the diagnosis and quantification of fatty liver: Limited clinical value in comparison to ultrasound scan and single-energy CT, with special reference to iron overload," J. Hepatol., vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 785-794, May 1998.
85. E. Joe, S. H. Kim, K. B. Lee, J.-J. Jang, J. Y. Lee, J. M. Lee, J. K. Han, and B. I. Choi, "Feasibility and accuracy of dual-source dual-energy CT for noninvasive determination of hepatic iron accumulation," Radiology, vol. 262, no. 1, pp. 126-135, Jan. 2012.
86. Y. Kohgo, T. Ohtake, K. Ikuta, Y. Suzuki, Y. Torimoto, and J. Kato, "Dysregulation of systemic iron metabolism in alcoholic liver diseases," J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. S78-S81, Mar. 2008.