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Volumn 112, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 575-626

Judicial independence and social welfare

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EID: 84892416036     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (6)

References (365)
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    • Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
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  • 2
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    • Iowa Ousts 3 Justices After Gay-Marriage Ruling
    • note
    • Grant Schulte, Iowa Ousts 3 Justices After Gay-Marriage Ruling, USA Today, Nov. 4, 2010, at A8, available at http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/2010-11-03-gay-marriage-iowa-election_N.htm.
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    • 556 U.S. 868 (2009).
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    • Caperton, 556 U.S. at 872-76.
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    • 84892408610 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
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    • Caperton, 556 U.S. at 872-76.
    • Caperton , vol.556 , pp. 872-876
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    • 84892384325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a small slice of the literature produced in the wake of these decisions
  • 8
    • 84892414803 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Big Money and Impartial Justice: Can They Live Together?
    • see, for example, Bert Brandenburg, Big Money and Impartial Justice: Can They Live Together?, 52 Ariz. L. Rev. 207 (2010).
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    • 76349106414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Electing Judges, Judging Elections, and the Lessons of Caperton
    • Pamela S. Karlan, Electing Judges, Judging Elections, and the Lessons of Caperton, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 80 (2009).
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    • 76349093607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • What Everybody Knows and What Too Few Accept
    • Lawrence Lessig, What Everybody Knows and What Too Few Accept, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 104 (2009).
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    • 79956064701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Choosing (and Recusing) Our State Court Justices Wisely
    • note
    • Sandra Day O'Connor, Remark, "Choosing (and Recusing) Our State Court Justices Wisely", 99 Geo. L.J. 151 (2010).
    • (2010) Geo. L.J. , vol.99 , pp. 151
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  • 12
    • 84892400612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Constitutionalizing Judicial Ethics: Judicial Elections After Republican Party of Minnesota v. White, Caperton, and Citizens United
    • note
    • Ronald D. Rotunda, Hartman Hotz Lecture, Constitutionalizing Judicial Ethics: Judicial Elections After Republican Party of Minnesota v. White, Caperton, and Citizens United, 64 Ark. L. Rev. 1 (2011).
    • (2011) Ark. L. Rev. , vol.64 , pp. 1
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    • 84892402446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
    • The Federalist , Issue.78 , pp. 392
  • 15
    • 3142589903 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Brutus, Essay XV (1788), reprinted in 2 The Complete Anti-Federalist 437, 442 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981). Two centuries have hardly altered the public rhetoric. In recent years, former Republican president George W. Bush and former Democratic house speaker Nancy Pelosi have affirmed their commitments to judicial independence.
    • (1788) The Complete Anti-Federalist , vol.2
    • Brutus1
  • 16
    • 84892400494 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • After DeLay Remarks, Bush Says He Supports 'Independent Judiciary'
    • note
    • See David D. Kirkpatrick, After DeLay Remarks, Bush Says He Supports 'Independent Judiciary', N.Y. Times, Apr. 9, 2005, at A15, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/09/politics/09judges.html?_r=1.
    • (2005) N.Y. Times
    • Kirkpatrick, D.D.1
  • 17
    • 84892412201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Respecting the Constitution and the Role of the Supreme Court
    • note
    • Nancy Pelosi, Op-Ed., Respecting the Constitution and the Role of the Supreme Court, Chi. Trib., Apr. 19, 2012, at 19, available at http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-04-19/ opinion/ct-perspec-0419-pelosi-20120419_1_judicial-review-federal-courts-supreme-court. But not all politicians have followed suit. According to former Republican house speaker Newt Gingrich, we "have judges who are dictatorial and arrogant, who pretend that they are the dominant branch and who issue orders that clearly are against the Constitution."
    • Chi. Trib. , pp. 19
    • Pelosi, N.1
  • 18
    • 84892394724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gingrich: Congress, President Can Ignore Courts
    • note
    • Lucy Madison, Gingrich: Congress, President Can Ignore Courts, Face the Nation (Oct. 9, 2011, 1:56 PM) (internal quotation marks omitted), http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/10/09/ftn/ main20117838.shtml?tag=contentMain;contentBody.Gingrich suggested that such judges be subpoenaed or even arrested.
    • (2011) Face the Nation
    • Madison, L.1
  • 19
    • 84892401876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gingrich: Gov't Branches Should Rule 2 out of 3
    • note
    • Lucy Madison, Gingrich: Gov't Branches Should Rule 2 out of 3, Face the Nation (Dec. 18, 2011, 1:19 PM), http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-3460_162-57344825/gingrich-govt-branches-should-rule-2-out-of-3. Democratic president Barack Obama has also challenged, or appeared to challenge, courts in recent years.
    • (2011) Face the Nation
    • Madison, L.1
  • 20
    • 84892426774 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Obama Takes a Shot at Supreme Court over Healthcare
    • note
    • See, e.g., Jeff Mason, Obama Takes a Shot at Supreme Court over Healthcare, Reuters (Apr. 2, 2012, 6:45 PM), http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/02/us-obama-healthcare-idUSBRE8310WP2012 0402 (reporting on President Obama's public statement that a decision by the Supreme Court to overturn the Affordable Care Act would constitute "judicial activism").
    • (2012) Reuters
    • Mason, J.1
  • 21
    • 84892377283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State of the Union: The Slam, the Scowl and the Separation of Powers
    • note
    • Terry Moran, State of the Union: The Slam, the Scowl and the Separation of Powers, ABC News (Jan. 28, 2010), http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/State_of_the_Union/state-of-the-union-president-obama-justice-alito-political-theater/story?id=9688639 (discussing President Obama's "extraordinary step of bashing a decision of the Supreme Court in his State of the Union address").
    • (2010) ABC News
    • Moran, T.1
  • 22
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 23
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 24
    • 0348195836 scopus 로고
    • Judging in a Corner of the Law
    • Frederick Schauer, Judging in a Corner of the Law, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1717, 1732 (1988).
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Schauer, F.1
  • 25
    • 85050835056 scopus 로고
    • Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence
    • See, e.g., Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence, 35 Law & Contemp. Probs. 108 (1970).
    • (1970) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.35 , pp. 108
    • Ervin Jr., S.J.1
  • 26
    • 34247378647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Why Judicial Elections Stink
    • note
    • See, e.g., Charles Gardner Geyh, Why Judicial Elections Stink, 64 Ohio St. L.J. 43, 51 (2003) (discussing the "judicial independence 'problem' caused by electing judges").
    • (2003) Ohio St. L.J. , vol.64
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 27
    • 78649550582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interpretation on the Borderline: Constitution, Canons, Direct Democracy
    • note
    • See, e.g., Philip P. Frickey, Interpretation on the Borderline: Constitution, Canons, Direct Democracy, 1996 Ann. Surv. Am. L. 477, 482 ("[T]he countermajoritarian difficulty is usually posited as a concern with unelected judges who have life tenure. displacing the choices of elected representatives. ").
    • (1996) Ann. Surv. Am. L.
    • Frickey, P.P.1
  • 28
    • 1942473819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?
    • note
    • See, e.g., Gregory A. Huber & Sanford C. Gordon, Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?, 48 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 247 (2004) (finding that elected judges impose harsher sentences as their elections draw nearer).
    • (2004) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.48 , pp. 247
    • Huber, G.A.1    Gordon, S.C.2
  • 29
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    • The Use of Authority in Statutory Interpretation: An Empirical Analysis
    • note
    • See, e.g., Nicholas S. Zeppos, The Use of Authority in Statutory Interpretation: An Empirical Analysis, 70 Tex. L. Rev. 1073, 1120-21 (1992) (stating that "[o]ne obvious solution" to the countermajoritarian difficulty "is to constrain the judge, " which some argue can be accomplished in statutory interpretation cases by strict adherence to text).
    • (1992) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.70
    • Zeppos, N.S.1
  • 30
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    • Judicial Independence in International Tribunals
    • note
    • See, e.g., Eric A. Posner & John C. Yoo, Judicial Independence in International Tribunals, 93 Calif. L. Rev. 1, 3 (2005) (arguing that dependent international tribunals are superior to independent ones).
    • (2005) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.93
    • Posner, E.A.1    Yoo, J.C.2
  • 31
    • 3543057126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is an Independent Judiciary Necessary for Democracy?
    • See, e.g., Robert M. Howard & Henry F. Carey, Is an Independent Judiciary Necessary for Democracy?, 87 Judicature 284 (2004).
    • (2004) Judicature , vol.87 , pp. 284
    • Howard, R.M.1    Carey, H.F.2
  • 32
    • 0042538969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence and Democratization: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis
    • Christopher M. Larkins, Judicial Independence and Democratization: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis, 44 Am. J. Comp. L. 605 (1996).
    • (1996) Am. J. Comp. L. , vol.44 , pp. 605
    • Larkins, C.M.1
  • 33
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    • Judiciaries in Corrupt Societies
    • note
    • See, e.g., Mikael Priks, Judiciaries in Corrupt Societies, 12 Econ. Governance 75 (2011) (examining the relationship between judicial independence and corruption at different levels of government).
    • (2011) Econ. Governance , vol.12 , pp. 75
    • Priks, M.1
  • 34
    • 79954993207 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Infrastructure, Judicial Independence, and Economic Development
    • note
    • See, e.g., Daniel M. Klerman, Legal Infrastructure, Judicial Independence, and Economic Development, 19 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. & Dev. L.J. 427 (2007) (reviewing literature on independence and economic growth).
    • (2007) Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. & Dev. L.J. , vol.19 , pp. 427
    • Klerman, D.M.1
  • 35
    • 24144465756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Value of Judicial Independence: Evidence from Eighteenth Century England
    • note
    • Daniel M. Klerman & Paul G. Mahoney, The Value of Judicial Independence: Evidence from Eighteenth Century England, 7 Am. L. & Econ. Rev. 1 (2005) (examining the relationship between judicial independence and equity markets).
    • (2005) Am. L. & Econ. Rev. , vol.7 , pp. 1
    • Klerman, D.M.1    Mahoney, P.G.2
  • 36
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    • Judicial Checks and Balances
    • note
    • Rafael La Porta et al., Judicial Checks and Balances, 112 J. Pol. Econ. 445, 445 (2004) ("We find strong support for the proposition that both judicial independence and constitutional review are associated with greater freedom. ").
    • (2004) J. Pol. Econ. , vol.112
    • Porta, R.L.1
  • 37
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    • The Irony of Judicial Elections
    • note
    • David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
    • (2008) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.108
    • Pozen, D.E.1
  • 40
    • 84892388070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • On the question of when self-interested political actors will make judges independent
  • 44
    • 4043050173 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?
    • F. Andrew Hanssen, Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?, 94 Am. Econ. Rev. 712 (2004).
    • (2004) Am. Econ. Rev. , vol.94 , pp. 712
    • Andrew Hanssen, F.1
  • 45
    • 9944253918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Political Origins of Judicial Empowerment Through Constitutionalization: Lessons from Four Constitutional Revolutions
    • Ran Hirschl, The Political Origins of Judicial Empowerment Through Constitutionalization: Lessons from Four Constitutional Revolutions, 25 Law & Soc. Inquiry 91, 100-01 (2000).
    • (2000) Law & Soc. Inquiry , vol.25
    • Hirschl, R.1
  • 46
    • 0001047705 scopus 로고
    • The Independent Judiciary in an Interest-Group Perspective
    • William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, The Independent Judiciary in an Interest-Group Perspective, 18 J.L. & Econ. 875 (1975).
    • (1975) J.L. & Econ. , vol.18 , pp. 875
    • Landes, W.M.1    Posner, R.A.2
  • 47
    • 0000241339 scopus 로고
    • The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach
    • J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach, 23 J. Legal Stud. 721 (1994).
    • (1994) J. Legal Stud. , vol.23 , pp. 721
    • Mark Ramseyer, J.1
  • 48
    • 0035529090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Information and Judicial Review: A Signaling Game of Legislative-Judicial Interaction
    • James R. Rogers, Information and Judicial Review: A Signaling Game of Legislative-Judicial Interaction, 45 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 84, 95 (2001).
    • (2001) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.45
    • Rogers, J.R.1
  • 49
    • 30944438168 scopus 로고
    • A Positive Analysis of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers, or: Why Do We Have an Independent Judiciary?
    • Eli M. Salzberger, A Positive Analysis of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers, or: Why Do We Have an Independent Judiciary?, 13 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 349 (1993).
    • (1993) Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. , vol.13 , pp. 349
    • Salzberger, E.M.1
  • 50
    • 0042170056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review
    • Matthew C. Stephenson, "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review, 32 J. Legal Stud. 59 (2003).
    • (2003) J. Legal Stud. , vol.32 , pp. 59
    • Stephenson, M.C.1
  • 51
    • 0035529978 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legislative-Judicial Relations: A Game-Theoretic Approach to Constitutional Review
    • and Georg Vanberg, Legislative-Judicial Relations: A Game-Theoretic Approach to Constitutional Review, 45 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 346, 347 (2001).
    • (2001) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.45
    • Vanberg, G.1
  • 53
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    • note
    • For discussions and different uses of the term
  • 54
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    • Federal Judges and the Judicial Branch: Their Independence and Accountability
    • see, for example, Gordon Bermant & Russell R. Wheeler, Federal Judges and the Judicial Branch: Their Independence and Accountability, 46 Mercer L. Rev. 835 (1995).
    • (1995) Mercer L. Rev. , vol.46 , pp. 835
    • Bermant, G.1    Wheeler, R.R.2
  • 55
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    • The Architecture of Judicial Independence
    • Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 315
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 57
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    • Judicial Independence: How Can You Tell It When You See It? And, Who Cares?
    • note
    • Charles M. Cameron, Judicial Independence: How Can You Tell It When You See It? And, Who Cares?, in Judicial Independence at the Crossroads, supra, at 134.
    • Judicial Independence at the Crossroads , pp. 134
    • Cameron, C.M.1
  • 58
    • 84886388148 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Challenges and Opportunities of Judicial Independence Research
    • note
    • Tom S. Clark & Jeffrey K. Staton, Challenges and Opportunities of Judicial Independence Research, L. & Cts., Summer 2011, at 10.
    • (2011) L. & Cts. , pp. 10
    • Clark, T.S.1    Staton, J.K.2
  • 60
    • 34648846181 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The State of the Onion: Peeling Back the Layers of America's Ambivalence Toward Judicial Independence
    • Charles Gardner Geyh, The State of the Onion: Peeling Back the Layers of America's Ambivalence Toward Judicial Independence, 82 Ind. L.J. 1215 (2007).
    • (2007) Ind. L.J. , vol.82 , pp. 1215
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 61
    • 0348137764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
    • Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 535
    • Karlan, P.S.1
  • 62
    • 33845343404 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nonpromotion and Judicial Independence
    • note
    • Daniel Klerman, Commentary, Nonpromotion and Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 455 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 455
    • Klerman, D.1    Commentary2
  • 64
    • 77954753411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Many Faces of Judicial Independence
    • Alex Kozinski, The Many Faces of Judicial Independence, 14 Ga. St. U. L. Rev. 861 (1998).
    • (1998) Ga. St. U. L. Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 861
    • Kozinski, A.1
  • 65
    • 33947385873 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Identifying "Independence"
    • Sanford Levinson, Identifying "Independence", 86 B.U. L. Rev. 1297 (2006).
    • (2006) B.U. L. Rev. , vol.86 , pp. 1297
    • Levinson, S.1
  • 66
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    • Federal Judicial Independence: Constitutional and Political Perspectives
    • Martin H. Redish, Federal Judicial Independence: Constitutional and Political Perspectives, 46 Mercer L. Rev. 697 (1995).
    • (1995) Mercer L. Rev. , vol.46 , pp. 697
    • Redish, M.H.1
  • 67
    • 34547537024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence: Often Cited, Rarely Understood
    • Lydia Brashear Tiede, Judicial Independence: Often Cited, Rarely Understood, 15 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 129 (2006).
    • (2006) J. Contemp. Legal Issues , vol.15 , pp. 129
    • Tiede, L.B.1
  • 68
    • 0347507675 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence
    • Frances Kahn Zemans, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 625 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 625
    • Zemans, F.K.1
  • 69
    • 84892416243 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • By including judges in the list, I mean to signal that I am concerned with the independence of individual judges vis-à-vis all other actors, not the independence of the judiciary as a whole. Of course, the two are related.
  • 70
    • 0347507691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Architecture of Judicial Independence
    • Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 315
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 71
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    • Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
    • See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 353
    • Ferejohn, J.1
  • 72
    • 0036807863 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint
    • John A. Ferejohn & Larry D. Kramer, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint, 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 962 (2002).
    • (2002) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.77 , pp. 962
    • Ferejohn, J.A.1    Kramer, L.D.2
  • 73
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    • note
    • This is a common but not universal approach, as some argue that independence implies or requires impartiality.
  • 74
    • 0348137764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
    • Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 535
    • Karlan, P.S.1
  • 76
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    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
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    • note
    • For discussion of such factors
  • 78
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    • The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence
    • see, for example, Charles Gardner Geyh, The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1259, 1279-80 (2008).
    • (2008) Geo. J. Legal Ethics , vol.21
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 79
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    • Learning About Judicial Independence: Institutional Change in the State Courts
    • F. Andrew Hanssen, Learning About Judicial Independence: Institutional Change in the State Courts, 33 J. Legal Stud. 431 (2004).
    • (2004) J. Legal Stud. , vol.33 , pp. 431
    • Andrew Hanssen, F.1
  • 80
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    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
  • 81
    • 34547550260 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Conditions for Judicial Independence
    • note
    • McNollgast, Conditions for Judicial Independence, 15 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 105 (2006).
    • (2006) J. Contemp. Legal Issues , vol.15 , pp. 105
    • McNollgast1
  • 82
    • 0000241339 scopus 로고
    • The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach
    • J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach, 23 J. Legal Stud. 721 (1994).
    • (1994) J. Legal Stud. , vol.23 , pp. 721
    • Mark Ramseyer, J.1
  • 83
    • 0042170056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review
    • Matthew C. Stephenson, "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review, 32 J. Legal Stud. 59 (2003).
    • (2003) J. Legal Stud. , vol.32 , pp. 59
    • Stephenson, M.C.1
  • 85
    • 57349096591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rescuing Judicial Accountability from the Realm of Political Rhetoric
    • note
    • See generally Charles Gardner Geyh, Rescuing Judicial Accountability from the Realm of Political Rhetoric, 56 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 911 (2006). People debate what judges should be accountable for.
    • (2006) Case W. Res. L. Rev. , vol.56 , pp. 911
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 86
    • 84858246347 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Iowa's 2010 Judicial Election: Appropriate Accountability or Rampant Passion?
    • note
    • See, e.g., Roy A. Schotland, Iowa's 2010 Judicial Election: Appropriate Accountability or Rampant Passion?, 46 Ct. Rev. 118 (2011), available at http://scholarship.law.georgetown. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1680&context=facpub.
    • (2011) Ct. Rev. , vol.46 , pp. 118
    • Schotland, R.A.1
  • 87
    • 84892381218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
    • note
    • See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
    • (2008) Ariz. L. Rev. , vol.50 , pp. 15
    • O'Connor, S.D.1    Jones, R.A.2
  • 89
    • 1942490471 scopus 로고
    • Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
    • note
    • But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61 , pp. 1969
    • Grodin, J.R.1
  • 90
    • 84892391539 scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., There Goes the Judge: Women Rout a Rape-Condoning Wisconsin Jurist, Time, Sept. 19, 1977, at 26 (reporting on a state court judge who was recalled from office after setting free a rapist and stating, "[W]hether women like it or not, they are sex objects").
    • (1977) There Goes the Judge: Women Rout a Rape-Condoning Wisconsin Jurist
  • 91
    • 34250189581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
  • 92
    • 57349162134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Methods of Judicial Selection & Their Impact on Judicial Independence
    • note
    • See generally Charles Gardner Geyh, Methods of Judicial Selection & Their Impact on Judicial Independence, Daedalus, Fall 2008, at 86.
    • (2008) Daedalus , pp. 86
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 93
    • 4043050173 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?
    • F. Andrew Hanssen, Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?, 94 Am. Econ. Rev. 712 (2004).
    • (2004) Am. Econ. Rev. , vol.94 , pp. 712
    • Andrew Hanssen, F.1
  • 94
    • 77958124350 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence
    • see, for example, Charles Gardner Geyh, The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1259, 1279-80 (2008).
    • (2008) Geo. J. Legal Ethics , vol.21
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 95
    • 63649155236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice
    • note
    • See, e.g., Joanna M. Shepherd, Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice, 58 Duke L.J. 623, 629 (2009) (finding evidence that "contributions from interest groups" to judges' election campaigns "are associated with increases in the probability that judges will vote for the litigants favored by those interest groups").
    • (2009) Duke L.J. , vol.58
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 96
    • 84892381218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
    • note
    • See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
    • (2008) Ariz. L. Rev. , vol.50 , pp. 15
    • O'Connor, S.D.1    Jones, R.A.2
  • 98
    • 84892409629 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In practice, judges probably care if their decisions are enforced, and this probably affects their behavior. For a discussion
  • 100
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 101
    • 0347507691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Architecture of Judicial Independence
    • Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 315
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 102
    • 77954753087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence in the United States
    • note
    • see also Stephen G. Breyer, Judicial Independence in the United States, 40 St. Louis U. L.J. 989, 994 (1996) (expressing similar ideas).
    • (1996) St. Louis U. L.J. , vol.40
    • Breyer, S.G.1
  • 103
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 104
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 106
    • 84892393576 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a concise tour of the two-century debate over life tenure
  • 107
    • 41549134995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge
    • see Michael J. Mazza, A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge, 39 Gonz. L. Rev. 131 (2003).
    • (2003) Gonz. L. Rev. , vol.39 , pp. 131
    • Mazza, M.J.1
  • 108
    • 84892395773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For early, classic expositions of this argument
  • 109
    • 84892399631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
    • The Federalist , Issue.78 , pp. 392
  • 110
    • 0003897575 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws 156-66 (Anne M. Cohler et al. eds. & trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1989) (1748).
    • (1989) The Spirit of the Laws , pp. 156-166
    • Montesquieu1
  • 112
    • 84892387011 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Again, for early, classic expositions
  • 113
    • 84892383144 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
    • The Federalist , Issue.78 , pp. 392
  • 114
    • 84892413031 scopus 로고
    • Letter from Andrew Jackson to Andrew J. Donelson
    • note
    • Letter from Andrew Jackson to Andrew J. Donelson (July 5, 1822) in 3 Correspondence of Andrew Jackson 167 (John Spencer Bassett ed., 1928).
    • (1822) Correspondence of Andrew Jackson , vol.3 , pp. 167
  • 115
    • 84892422648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A vast literature develops these arguments.
  • 116
    • 22644450736 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography
    • See, e.g., Amy B. Atchison et al., Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 723 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 723
    • Atchison, A.B.1
  • 118
    • 0347507691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Architecture of Judicial Independence
    • Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 315
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 119
    • 85050835056 scopus 로고
    • Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence
    • See, e.g., Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence, 35 Law & Contemp. Probs. 108 (1970).
    • (1970) Law & Contemp. Probs. , vol.35 , pp. 108
    • Ervin Jr., S.J.1
  • 120
    • 84925926615 scopus 로고
    • The Essence of Judicial Independence
    • Irving R. Kaufman, The Essence of Judicial Independence, 80 Colum. L. Rev. 671 (1980)
    • (1980) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.80 , pp. 671
    • Kaufman, I.R.1
  • 121
    • 22644450736 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography
    • See, e.g., Amy B. Atchison et al., Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 723 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 723
    • Atchison, A.B.1
  • 122
    • 84892397119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Again, a vast literature addresses these ideas.
  • 123
    • 0348137765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
    • See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 353
    • Ferejohn, J.1
  • 124
    • 0348137765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
    • See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 353
    • Ferejohn, J.1
  • 125
    • 84892411928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) Examinations in the UK-2003
    • note
    • See P.C. Shrimpton et al., Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) Examinations in the UK-2003 Review 31 (2005), available at http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/ HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1194947420292.
    • (2005) Review , pp. 31
    • Shrimpton, P.C.1
  • 126
    • 84855829373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law Unplugged
    • note
    • see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2010) Emory L.J. , vol.59
    • Rodriguez, D.B.1
  • 127
    • 85190014598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law
    • note
    • Brian Z. Tamanaha, A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law, in Relocating the Rule of Law 3, 11 (Gianluigi Palombella & Neil Walker eds., 2009) ("An institutionalised, independent judiciary is crucial to both functions of the rule of law. ").
    • (2009) Relocating the Rule of Law
    • Tamanaha, B.Z.1
  • 128
    • 0347303096 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law
    • note
    • William C. Whitford, The Rule of Law, 2000 Wis. L. Rev. 723, 738 ("[J]udicial independence is widely seen as critically necessary to the effective implementation of [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2000) Wis. L. Rev.
    • Whitford, W.C.1
  • 129
    • 0347507675 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence
    • Frances Kahn Zemans, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 625 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 625
    • Zemans, F.K.1
  • 130
    • 84885835839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Thoughts on Goldilocks and Judicial Independence
    • Frank B. Cross, Thoughts on Goldilocks and Judicial Independence, 64 Ohio St. L.J. 195, 217 (2003).
    • (2003) Ohio St. L.J. , vol.64
    • Cross, F.B.1
  • 132
    • 3142589903 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Brutus, Essay XV (1788), reprinted in 2 The Complete Anti-Federalist 437, 442 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981). Two centuries have hardly altered the public rhetoric. In recent years, former Republican president George W. Bush and former Democratic house speaker Nancy Pelosi have affirmed their commitments to judicial independence.
    • (1788) The Complete Anti-Federalist , vol.2
    • Brutus, E.X.V.1
  • 133
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 135
    • 57349108884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice in Peril: The Endangered Balance Between Impartial Courts and Judicial Election Campaigns
    • Bert Brandenburg & Roy A. Schotland, Justice in Peril: The Endangered Balance Between Impartial Courts and Judicial Election Campaigns, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1229, 1232 (2008).
    • (2008) Geo. J. Legal Ethics , vol.21
    • Brandenburg, B.1    Schotland, R.A.2
  • 136
    • 3142625754 scopus 로고
    • The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
    • note
    • see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
    • (1995) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.62
    • Croley, S.P.1
  • 138
    • 42549157941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Irony of Judicial Elections
    • note
    • David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
    • (2008) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.108
    • Pozen, D.E.1
  • 139
    • 84872970870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co
    • note
    • Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co., 556 U.S. 868, 872-76 (2009).
    • (2009) U.S. , vol.556
  • 140
    • 84892405110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davis Wants His Judges to Stay in Line
    • note
    • Davis Wants His Judges to Stay in Line, S.F. Chron., Mar. 1, 2000, at A3, available at 2000 WLNR 4939353 (internal quotation marks omitted).
    • (2000) S.F. Chron.
  • 141
    • 34548627310 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking
    • note
    • E.g., Damon M. Cann, Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking, 7 St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. 281 (2007) (finding evidence that elected judges favor lawyers who contribute to their campaigns).
    • (2007) St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. , vol.7 , pp. 281
    • Cann, D.M.1
  • 142
    • 41749102212 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges
    • note
    • See Paul Brace & Brent D. Boyea, State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges, 52 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 360 (2008) (finding that public support for capital punishment influences judges' decisions to uphold death sentences).
    • (2008) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.52 , pp. 360
    • Brace, P.1    Boyea, B.D.2
  • 143
    • 1942473819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?
    • note
    • See, e.g., Gregory A. Huber & Sanford C. Gordon, Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?, 48 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 247 (2004) (finding that elected judges impose harsher sentences as their elections draw nearer).
    • (2004) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.48 , pp. 247
    • Huber, G.A.1    Gordon, S.C.2
  • 144
    • 68049095998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Are Appointed Judges Strategic Too?
    • note
    • See, e.g., Joanna M. Shepherd, Are Appointed Judges Strategic Too?, 58 Duke L.J. 1589 (2009) (finding evidence that appointed judges favor government litigants).
    • (2009) Duke L.J. , vol.58 , pp. 1589
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 145
    • 84892428538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Of course, extralegal factors affect the decisions of independent judges too. For discussion and abundant citations
  • 147
    • 77949816671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Controversy over Electing Judges and Advocacy in Political Science
    • note
    • See, e.g., Melinda Gann Hall, The Controversy over Electing Judges and Advocacy in Political Science, 30 Just. Sys. J. 284, 285 (2009) ("[P]ressures from electoral politics [can] forc[e] judges to abandon their own political preferences and act in accordance with the rule of law. ").
    • (2009) Just. Sys. J. , vol.30
    • Hall, M.G.1
  • 148
    • 84892381218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
    • note
    • See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
    • (2008) Ariz. L. Rev. , vol.50 , pp. 15
    • O'Connor, S.D.1    Jones, R.A.2
  • 149
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 151
    • 3142750700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Regulation of Medical Necessity: The Case of Weight-Reduction Surgery
    • note
    • See Mark A. Hall, State Regulation of Medical Necessity: The Case of Weight-Reduction Surgery, 53 Duke L.J. 653, 664 (2003) (identifying from interviews that "public backlash" is one reason for insurers becoming "'managed care lite'-i.e., scaling back on the list of procedures that require medical necessity review prior to treatment").
    • (2003) Duke L.J. , vol.53
    • Hall, M.A.1
  • 152
    • 84892381218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
    • note
    • See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
    • (2008) Ariz. L. Rev. , vol.50 , pp. 15
    • O'Connor, S.D.1    Jones, R.A.2
  • 155
    • 84892408370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The language in the text simplifies the inquiry. The real inquiry is whether a relatively dependent judge would apply the law "correctly, " however correctly is defined, more often than a more independent judge in the same setting hearing the same cases.
  • 156
    • 84892397120 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For evidence that state court judges objectively apply legal rules, at least some of the time
  • 157
    • 84856498055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
    • see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
    • (2011) J. Legal Stud. , vol.40 , pp. 333
    • Gilbert, M.D.1
  • 161
    • 84856498055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
    • see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
    • (2011) J. Legal Stud. , vol.40 , pp. 333
    • Gilbert, M.D.1
  • 164
    • 0002280050 scopus 로고
    • Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
    • Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
    • (1986) Sw. L.J. , vol.40 , pp. 31
    • Dubois, P.L.1
  • 165
    • 84892406531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For studies on politics, popular opinion, and state court decisions
  • 166
    • 35348871147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Competition as Accountability in State Supreme Court Elections
    • note
    • see, for example, Melinda Gann Hall, Competition as Accountability in State Supreme Court Elections, in Running for Judge 165 (Matthew J. Streb ed., 2007).
    • (2007) Running for Judge , pp. 165
    • Hall, M.G.1
  • 167
    • 84965940318 scopus 로고
    • Justices as Representatives: Elections and Judicial Politics in the American States
    • Melinda Gann Hall, Justices as Representatives: Elections and Judicial Politics in the American States, 23 Am. Pol. Q. 485 (1995).
    • (1995) Am. Pol. Q. , vol.23 , pp. 485
    • Hall, M.G.1
  • 168
    • 0035533814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Supreme Courts in American Democracy: Probing the Myths of Judicial Reform
    • Melinda Gann Hall, State Supreme Courts in American Democracy: Probing the Myths of Judicial Reform, 95 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 315 (2001).
    • (2001) Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. , vol.95 , pp. 315
    • Hall, M.G.1
  • 169
    • 62749130778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
    • Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
    • (2009) J. Legal Stud. , vol.38 , pp. 169
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 170
    • 41749102212 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges
    • note
    • See Paul Brace & Brent D. Boyea, State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges, 52 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 360 (2008) (finding that public support for capital punishment influences judges' decisions to uphold death sentences).
    • (2008) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.52 , pp. 360
    • Brace, P.1    Boyea, B.D.2
  • 175
    • 84892416543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • But again, the inquiry is relative. The question is not whether independent or dependent judges respond to popular opinion; the questions are which type of judge responds more and under what conditions?
  • 176
    • 85050173782 scopus 로고
    • A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America
    • See, e.g., Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 Am. J. Legal Hist. 190, 215-16 (1993).
    • (1993) Am. J. Legal Hist. , vol.37
    • Nelson, C.1
  • 177
    • 0039308527 scopus 로고
    • Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?
    • Roy A. Schotland, Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?, 2 J.L. & Pol. 57, 58-72 (1985).
    • (1985) J.L. & Pol. , vol.2
    • Schotland, R.A.1
  • 178
    • 62749130778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
    • Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
    • (2009) J. Legal Stud. , vol.38 , pp. 169
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 179
    • 62749130778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
    • Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
    • (2009) J. Legal Stud. , vol.38 , pp. 169
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 180
    • 77954873038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Economic Crisis and the Rise of Judicial Elections and Judicial Review
    • Jed Handelsman Shugerman, Economic Crisis and the Rise of Judicial Elections and Judicial Review, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 1061, 1133 (2010).
    • (2010) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.123
    • Shugerman, J.H.1
  • 181
    • 34548627310 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking
    • note
    • E.g., Damon M. Cann, Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking, 7 St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. 281 (2007) (finding evidence that elected judges favor lawyers who contribute to their campaigns).
    • (2007) St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. , vol.7 , pp. 281
    • Cann, D.M.1
  • 182
    • 42549157941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Irony of Judicial Elections
    • note
    • David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
    • (2008) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.108
    • Pozen, D.E.1
  • 183
    • 57649106443 scopus 로고
    • Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure
    • note
    • Judith Resnik, Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure, 26 Cardozo L. Rev. 579, 600 (2004) ("[S]kepticism about universal answers to questions of judicial selection is in order. [B]eing a democracy dictates less than might be expected about methodologies for judicial selection. "). See generally Evan Haynes, The Selection and Tenure of Judges (1944).
    • (1944) Cardozo L. Rev. , vol.26
    • Resnik, J.1
  • 184
    • 84892386297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • I recognize that "society's needs and preferences" is a loaded phrase given disagreements about what constitutes social welfare and the difficulties inherent in aggregating group preferences. I use the phrase loosely.
  • 186
    • 84892390534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For excellent, recent discussions of some of these themes
  • 187
    • 84872700871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation
    • see Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl & Ethan J. Leib, Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation, 79 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1215 (2012).
    • (2012) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.79 , pp. 1215
    • Bruhl, A.-A.P.1    Leib, E.J.2
  • 188
    • 78649513943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism
    • note
    • David E. Pozen, Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 2047, 2076-86 (2010). Both articles, like much of the literature, blur the line between representativeness and commitment to legalism.
    • (2010) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.110
    • Pozen, D.E.1
  • 189
    • 3142625754 scopus 로고
    • The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
    • note
    • see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
    • (1995) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.62
    • Croley, S.P.1
  • 190
    • 0348199092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
    • note
    • Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
    • (1996) Va. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1
    • Klarman, M.J.1
  • 191
    • 3142625754 scopus 로고
    • The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
    • note
    • see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
    • (1995) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.62
    • Croley, S.P.1
  • 192
    • 0348199092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
    • note
    • Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
    • (1996) Va. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1
    • Klarman, M.J.1
  • 193
    • 0348199092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
    • note
    • Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
    • (1996) Va. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1
    • Klarman, M.J.1
  • 194
    • 77954135397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re Marriage Cases
    • note
    • E.g., In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008), superseded by state constitutional amendment, Cal. Const. art. 1, § 7.5, invalidated by
    • (2008) P.3d , vol.183 , pp. 384
  • 195
    • 84855889633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Perry v. Schwarzenegger
    • note
    • Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010), aff'd sub nom.
    • (2010) F. Supp. 2d , vol.704 , pp. 921
  • 196
    • 84870179624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Perry v. Brown
    • note
    • Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012)
    • (2012) F.3d , vol.671 , pp. 1052
  • 197
    • 84897834954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
    • (2013) S. Ct. , vol.133 , pp. 2652
  • 198
    • 84855903348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Varnum v. Brien
    • note
    • Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
    • (2009) N.W.2d , vol.763 , pp. 862
  • 199
    • 0348137764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
    • Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 535
    • Karlan, P.S.1
  • 200
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 201
    • 84929064950 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • note
    • See Kenneth Kress, Legal Indeterminacy, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 283, 297 (1989) (using a similar example to illustrate determinacy).
    • (1989) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.77
    • Kress, K.1
  • 202
    • 84870179624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Perry v. Brown
    • note
    • See Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012).
    • (2012) F.3d , vol.671 , pp. 1052
  • 203
    • 84897834954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
    • (2013) S. Ct. , vol.133 , pp. 2652
  • 204
    • 84896514493 scopus 로고
    • Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority
    • See generally Jules L. Coleman & Brian Leiter, Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 549 (1993).
    • (1993) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.142 , pp. 549
    • Coleman, J.L.1    Leiter, B.2
  • 205
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 206
    • 84883934423 scopus 로고
    • On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma
    • See Lawrence B. Solum, On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma, 54 U. Chi. L. Rev. 462, 473 (1987).
    • (1987) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.54
    • Solum, L.B.1
  • 207
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 208
    • 0039040009 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Realism
    • note
    • Cf. Brian Leiter, Legal Realism, in A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory 261, 266 (Dennis Patterson ed., 1996) ("Indeterminacy enters not just in the interpretation of statutes and precedents, but also in the wide latitude judges have in how to characterize the facts of a case. ").
    • (1996) A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 209
    • 84896514493 scopus 로고
    • Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority
    • See generally Jules L. Coleman & Brian Leiter, Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 549 (1993).
    • (1993) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.142 , pp. 549
    • Coleman, J.L.1    Leiter, B.2
  • 212
    • 84936068266 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 239 (1986) (introducing Hercules, a construct of an ideal judge).
    • (1986) Law's Empire , pp. 239
    • Dworkin, R.1
  • 213
    • 1942490471 scopus 로고
    • Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
    • note
    • But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61 , pp. 1969
    • Grodin, J.R.1
  • 215
    • 84929064950 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • note
    • See Kenneth Kress, Legal Indeterminacy, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 283, 297 (1989) (using a similar example to illustrate determinacy).
    • (1989) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.77
    • Kress, K.1
  • 216
    • 0039567711 scopus 로고
    • Easy Cases
    • Frederick Schauer, Easy Cases, 58 S. Cal. L. Rev. 399 (1985).
    • (1985) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.58 , pp. 399
    • Schauer, F.1
  • 217
    • 84936031667 scopus 로고
    • The Player and the Cards: Nihilism and Legal Theory
    • Joseph William Singer, The Player and the Cards: Nihilism and Legal Theory, 94 Yale L.J. 1 (1984).
    • (1984) Yale L.J. , vol.94 , pp. 1
    • Singer, J.W.1
  • 218
    • 84883934423 scopus 로고
    • On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma
    • See Lawrence B. Solum, On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma, 54 U. Chi. L. Rev. 462, 473 (1987).
    • (1987) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.54
    • Solum, L.B.1
  • 219
    • 68049083043 scopus 로고
    • Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899
    • note
    • Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America 29, 34-38, 42-43 (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984). For other discussions of this argument
    • (1984) The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America
    • Hall, K.L.1
  • 220
    • 0002280050 scopus 로고
    • Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
    • Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
    • (1986) Sw. L.J. , vol.40 , pp. 31
    • Dubois, P.L.1
  • 221
    • 1942490471 scopus 로고
    • Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
    • note
    • But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61 , pp. 1969
    • Grodin, J.R.1
  • 222
    • 0348137764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
    • Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 535
    • Karlan, P.S.1
  • 223
    • 85050173782 scopus 로고
    • A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America
    • See, e.g., Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 Am. J. Legal Hist. 190, 215-16 (1993).
    • (1993) Am. J. Legal Hist. , vol.37
    • Nelson, C.1
  • 224
    • 77954753087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence in the United States
    • note
    • see also Stephen G. Breyer, Judicial Independence in the United States, 40 St. Louis U. L.J. 989, 994 (1996) (expressing similar ideas).
    • (1996) St. Louis U. L.J. , vol.40
    • Breyer, S.G.1
  • 226
    • 84892417534 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a compact discussion with a plethora of references
  • 228
    • 84892377514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • On the problems of discerning intent
  • 229
    • 0039079572 scopus 로고
    • Congress Is a "They, " Not an "It": Legislative Intent as Oxymoron
    • see, for example, Kenneth A. Shepsle, Congress Is a "They, " Not an "It": Legislative Intent as Oxymoron, 12 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 239 (1992).
    • (1992) Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. , vol.12 , pp. 239
    • Shepsle, K.A.1
  • 231
    • 0347771587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Textualism as a Nondelegation Doctrine
    • note
    • See John F. Manning, Textualism as a Nondelegation Doctrine, 97 Colum. L. Rev. 673 (1997). For a helpful overview and dissection of this debate
    • (1997) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.97 , pp. 673
    • Manning, J.F.1
  • 232
    • 18444417148 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • What Is Textualism?
    • see Caleb Nelson, What Is Textualism?, 91 Va. L. Rev. 347 (2005).
    • (2005) Va. L. Rev. , vol.91 , pp. 347
    • Nelson, C.1
  • 233
    • 8344244497 scopus 로고
    • The Morality of Law
    • note
    • See, e.g., H.L.A. Hart, The Morality of Law, 78 Harv. L. Rev. 1281 (1965) (book review).
    • (1965) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.78 , pp. 1281
    • Hart, H.L.A.1
  • 237
    • 85190014598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law
    • note
    • Brian Z. Tamanaha, A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law, in Relocating the Rule of Law 3, 11 (Gianluigi Palombella & Neil Walker eds., 2009) ("An institutionalised, independent judiciary is crucial to both functions of the rule of law. ").
    • (2009) Relocating the Rule of Law
    • Tamanaha, B.Z.1
  • 238
    • 84892400327 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This assumes that people make plans and develop expectations based on law. This is a standard assumption, but it may be wrong. In certain circumstances people may rely on, and expect, nonlegalistic decisions.
  • 239
    • 84892404143 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Nonlegalistic decisions can constrain government actors too but presumably in less predictable ways.
  • 242
    • 84892377751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an interesting discussion and several plausible examples
  • 243
    • 84887862041 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is Legality Political?
    • see Frederick Schauer, Is Legality Political?, 53 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 481 (2011).
    • (2011) Wm. & Mary L. Rev. , vol.53 , pp. 481
    • Schauer, F.1
  • 249
    • 0002280050 scopus 로고
    • Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
    • Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
    • (1986) Sw. L.J. , vol.40 , pp. 31
    • Dubois, P.L.1
  • 250
    • 0002280050 scopus 로고
    • Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
    • Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
    • (1986) Sw. L.J. , vol.40 , pp. 31
    • Dubois, P.L.1
  • 251
    • 0347507691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Architecture of Judicial Independence
    • Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
    • (1999) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.72 , pp. 315
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 252
    • 0346172501 scopus 로고
    • Ambivalence and Accountability
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
    • (1988) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.61
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 253
    • 84856498055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
    • see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
    • (2011) J. Legal Stud. , vol.40 , pp. 333
    • Gilbert, M.D.1
  • 255
    • 84872700871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation
    • see Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl & Ethan J. Leib, Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation, 79 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1215 (2012).
    • (2012) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.79 , pp. 1215
    • Bruhl, A.-A.P.1    Leib, E.J.2
  • 256
    • 84872234227 scopus 로고
    • Dualistic Values in the Age of International Legisprudence
    • note
    • Jonathan Turley, Dualistic Values in the Age of International Legisprudence, 44 Hastings L.J. 185, 204-05 (1993) (tying theories of statutory interpretation to judicial independence).
    • (1993) Hastings L.J. , vol.44
    • Turley, J.1
  • 257
    • 78649513943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism
    • note
    • David E. Pozen, Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 2047, 2076-86 (2010). Both articles, like much of the literature, blur the line between representativeness and commitment to legalism.
    • (2010) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.110
    • Pozen, D.E.1
  • 258
    • 14944372325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence in International Tribunals
    • note
    • See, e.g., Eric A. Posner & John C. Yoo, Judicial Independence in International Tribunals, 93 Calif. L. Rev. 1, 3 (2005) (arguing that dependent international tribunals are superior to independent ones).
    • (2005) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.93
    • Posner, E.A.1    Yoo, J.C.2
  • 259
    • 84892394828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Representative in terms of welfare implications, which in this Article means implications for aggregate utility.
  • 261
    • 84892427687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • At least not to a complete one. Below, I assume that judges derive utility from two activities: adjudicating and legislating.
  • 263
    • 84892412354 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here is a fuller and slightly more technical explanation of my methodological choice. To construct a utility function for judges, I need to make assumptions not only about the sources of judges' utility-I have settled on adjudicating and legislating-but also about the relationship between independence and those sources. Specifically, I need to assume that greater independence either increases or decreases the weight judges place on adjudicating and legislating, respectively. As soon as I make such an assumption, the model itself, or at least the version I have constructed, becomes superfluous. It adds complexity to this Article but no additional insights. My contribution, and the action in this Article, lies in thinking through possible relationships between independence and sources of judicial utility, not in committing to any particular one.
  • 264
    • 84892387866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It could be a pure legal question or a mixed question of law and fact.
  • 265
    • 84892410090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Treating the determinacy of law as binary-the law provides a unique answer to the legal question or no answer at all-simplifies the analysis at the cost of realism. Future work could take a more nuanced approach by allowing for a continuum of determinacy.
  • 266
    • 84892397263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In future work, I hope to relax this assumption.
  • 268
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 269
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 270
    • 84892390904 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These are standard inputs in the judicial utility functions constructed by scholars.
  • 271
    • 84908697469 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Law and Policy: More and Less Than a Dichotomy
    • note
    • Cf. Lawrence Baum, Law and Policy: More and Less Than a Dichotomy, in What's Law Got to Do with It? 71, 71 (Charles Gardner Geyh ed., 2011) ("[T]he most frequent question about judicial behavior is the balance between law and policy. ").
    • (2011) What's Law Got to Do with It?
    • Baum, L.1
  • 272
    • 0002190833 scopus 로고
    • What Do Judges and Justices Maximize? (The Same Thing Everybody Else Does)
    • note
    • But see Richard A. Posner, What Do Judges and Justices Maximize? (The Same Thing Everybody Else Does), 3 Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. 1 (1993) (positing a more complicated function).
    • (1993) Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. , vol.3 , pp. 1
    • Posner, R.A.1
  • 273
    • 0348199092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
    • note
    • Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
    • (1996) Va. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1
    • Klarman, M.J.1
  • 274
    • 84892400188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • I assume that judges never make mistakes, so every nonlegalistic decision in a determinate case is intentional. Alternatively, I could assume that independent and dependent judges are equally likely to make mistakes. Either way, the analysis would be the same. Some might claim that independent judgeships attract higher-quality judges, and one might suppose that means that independent judges make fewer mistakes. I do not consider that possibility. I note that such a claim is hard to evaluate, in part because sensible empirical measures of quality are hard to come by.
  • 275
    • 77953827681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Professionals or Politicians: The Uncertain Empirical Case for an Elected Rather Than Appointed Judiciary
    • note
    • Cf. Stephen J. Choi et al., Professionals or Politicians: The Uncertain Empirical Case for an Elected Rather Than Appointed Judiciary, 26 J.L. Econ. & Org. 290 (2010) (attempting to develop metrics for judicial quality).
    • (2010) J.L. Econ. & Org. , vol.26 , pp. 290
    • Choi, S.J.1
  • 276
    • 84892411236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
    • The Federalist , Issue.78 , pp. 392
  • 277
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 278
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 279
    • 0040818534 scopus 로고
    • Legal Indeterminacy
    • See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
    • (1995) Legal Theory , vol.1
    • Leiter, B.1
  • 281
    • 23044527235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • What's Law Got to Do with It? Judicial Behavioralists Test the "Legal Model" of Judicial Decision Making
    • note
    • See Howard Gillman, What's Law Got to Do with It? Judicial Behavioralists Test the "Legal Model" of Judicial Decision Making, 26 Law & Soc. Inquiry 465, 490 (2001) (reviewing Harold J. Spaeth & Jeffrey A. Segal, Majority Rule or Minority Will (1999). Under a "post-positivist" account, holding this belief might make the decision legalistic. Id. at 486.
    • (1999) Law & Soc. Inquiry , vol.26
    • Gillman, H.1
  • 282
    • 15744397664 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bush v. Gore
    • note
    • Consider, for example, the opinion in Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000) (per curiam). It looks like other opinions, but by many (but of course not all) accounts, it is nonlegalistic, at least with respect to the remedy. For a critical discussion
    • (2000) U.S. , vol.531 , pp. 98
  • 287
    • 84892401889 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here are the conditions: there is a unique median citizen, issues are separable, and with respect to each issue, citizens are distributed symmetrically around the median and have single-peaked preferences that are symmetrically intense.
  • 288
    • 84892378887 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here are the conditions: there is a unique median citizen, issues are separable, and with respect to each issue, citizens are distributed symmetrically around the median and have single-peaked preferences that are symmetrically intense.
  • 289
    • 84892412238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Note that I have switched from the median voter to the median citizen. The citizen, and not the voter, is the relevant benchmark given my conception of social welfare.
  • 290
    • 84892384234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This point may merit some elaboration. I assume that the social payoff of a judge's decision in a case where the law is indeterminate depends entirely on the proximity of that decision to the decision the median citizen would prefer. I have adopted this assumption to make the analysis simpler and more precise. Nothing substantive turns on it, however. One could leave the discussion general, assuming only that "good" decisions (however defined) increase social welfare and "bad" decisions reduce it. Alternatively, one could adopt a precise but different (and dubious) approach, assuming, for example, that decisions closer to the preference of an extreme liberal or an extreme conservative increase social welfare and decisions further away reduce it. All one needs to run the analysis is some benchmark for evaluating the social payoff of decisions in cases where judges exercise policymaking discretion. I have chosen proximity to the median citizen, but others could choose different benchmarks and still use the framework.
  • 291
    • 84892429222 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here is an intuitive explanation: I assume that the value of legalism does not depend on whether a judge is independent or dependent.
  • 293
    • 84892386265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • I assume that the value of a legalistic decision is fixed, but in reality, it may vary by judge. To illustrate, if citizens expect a dependent judge to fold under political pressure and make nonlegalistic decisions, they may not rely on the law to guide their behavior. That would make the payoff of a legalistic decision by a dependent judge lower than the payoff of an equivalent decision by an independent judge.
  • 296
    • 34250189581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
  • 297
    • 34250189581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
  • 298
    • 84892419952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In notation, l > c, and l > c + a.
  • 299
    • 84892393296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Note that a dependent judge may on average be more congruent with the median citizen even if he sometimes acts in the interests of narrow groups.
  • 300
    • 84892402841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • These individuals or groups would have to oppose existing law, in general or in a particular case. If they supported existing law, they would encourage and try to increase a judge's propensity for legalism.
  • 301
    • 34250189581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
    • See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
    • (2007) Geo. L.J. , vol.95 , pp. 965
    • Jackson, V.C.1
  • 302
    • 84859793300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
    • note
    • Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
    • (2012) Cornell L. Rev. , vol.97
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 304
    • 84859793300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
    • note
    • Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
    • (2012) Cornell L. Rev. , vol.97
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 305
    • 62749130778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
    • Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
    • (2009) J. Legal Stud. , vol.38 , pp. 169
    • Shepherd, J.M.1
  • 306
    • 84892379787 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Too Many States, Judges Face Reprisals for Unpopular Rulings
    • note
    • Editorial, In Too Many States, Judges Face Reprisals for Unpopular Rulings, USA Today, Oct. 19, 2010, at A8, available at http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/ 2010-10-19-editorial19_ST_N.htm.
    • (2010) USA Today
    • Editorial1
  • 307
    • 84925926615 scopus 로고
    • The Essence of Judicial Independence
    • Irving R. Kaufman, The Essence of Judicial Independence, 80 Colum. L. Rev. 671 (1980)
    • (1980) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.80 , pp. 671
    • Kaufman, I.R.1
  • 308
    • 84892405813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • To be clear, we cannot draw that conclusion if we approach the question of optimal independence from a utilitarian or other consequentialist point of view, as I do. The authors I quote, and many others, may (perhaps implicitly) approach the question from a deontological standpoint, favoring greater independence because they believe that it will improve impartiality, which justice and morality require. In that case, my work is not a criticism of their analyses but rather a consequentialist counterpart.
  • 309
    • 68049083043 scopus 로고
    • Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899
    • note
    • Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America 29, 34-38, 42-43 (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984). For other discussions of this argument
    • (1984) The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America
    • Hall, K.L.1
  • 310
    • 84892375344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • I am not the first to make this point.
  • 312
    • 0348199092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
    • note
    • Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
    • (1996) Va. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1
    • Klarman, M.J.1
  • 314
    • 84870179624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Perry v. Brown
    • note
    • See, e.g., Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012)
    • (2012) F.3d , vol.671 , pp. 1052
  • 315
    • 84897834954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
    • Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
    • (2013) S. Ct. , vol.133 , pp. 2652
  • 316
    • 84855903348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Varnum v. Brien
    • note
    • Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
    • (2009) N.W.2d , vol.763 , pp. 862
  • 318
    • 84892428571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This is, of course, a common line of reasoning.
  • 320
    • 84892409321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Unconventional Wisdom: The Roberts Court's Proper Support of Judicial Elections
    • note
    • Scott W. Gaylord, Unconventional Wisdom: The Roberts Court's Proper Support of Judicial Elections, 2011 Mich. St. L. Rev. 1521, 1549-50.
    • (2011) Mich. St. L. Rev.
    • Gaylord, S.W.1
  • 321
    • 84892401226 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • If an independent judge has a higher propensity for legalism and is at least as congruent with the median citizen as a dependent judge, or if an independent judge is more congruent with the median citizen and has at least as high a propensity for legalism as a dependent judge, society strictly prefers an independent judge, regardless of the determinacy of law. Analogous propositions hold for a dependent judge.
  • 322
    • 84892407561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Determinacy also matters if the opposite trade-off arises: independent judges make more nonlegalistic decisions, each imposing a low cost on average, and dependent judges make fewer nonlegalistic decisions, each imposing a high cost on average. I briefly address that potential trade-off in Section III.E.
  • 323
    • 84936068266 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 239 (1986) (introducing Hercules, a construct of an ideal judge).
    • (1986) Law's Empire , pp. 239
    • Dworkin, R.1
  • 324
    • 11844303951 scopus 로고
    • Can Any Legal Theory Constrain Any Judicial Decision?
    • note
    • E.g., Anthony D'Amato, Essay, Can Any Legal Theory Constrain Any Judicial Decision?, 43 U. Miami L. Rev. 513 (1989).
    • (1989) U. Miami L. Rev. , vol.43 , pp. 513
    • D'Amato, A.1
  • 325
    • 84859793300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
    • note
    • Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
    • (2012) Cornell L. Rev. , vol.97
    • Geyh, C.G.1
  • 326
    • 0042961150 scopus 로고
    • The Judicial Function and the Elusive Goal of Principled Decisionmaking
    • note
    • See, e.g., Harry T. Edwards, Feature, The Judicial Function and the Elusive Goal of Principled Decisionmaking, 1991 Wis. L. Rev. 837.
    • (1991) Wis. L. Rev. , pp. 837
    • Edwards, H.T.1
  • 327
    • 84892391256 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In notation, l > c and l > c + a.
  • 328
    • 84892394341 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
    • The Federalist , Issue.78 , pp. 392
  • 329
    • 84892397140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Or, alternatively, if independent judges have a lower propensity for legalism and dependent judges are less congruent with the median citizen.
  • 330
    • 84892425888 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For evidence of this
  • 331
    • 0000079986 scopus 로고
    • Opting out of the Legal System: Extralegal Contractual Relations in the Diamond Industry
    • note
    • see, for example, Lisa Bernstein, Opting out of the Legal System: Extralegal Contractual Relations in the Diamond Industry, 21 J. Legal Stud. 115 (1992) (discussing the diamond industry's reliance on extralegal enforcement of business norms).
    • (1992) J. Legal Stud. , vol.21 , pp. 115
    • Bernstein, L.1
  • 332
    • 0001875669 scopus 로고
    • Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
    • note
    • Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
    • (1963) Am. Soc. Rev. , vol.28 , pp. 55
    • Macaulay, S.1
  • 333
    • 0001875669 scopus 로고
    • Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
    • note
    • Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
    • (1963) Am. Soc. Rev. , vol.28 , pp. 55
    • Macaulay, S.1
  • 334
    • 0001875669 scopus 로고
    • Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
    • note
    • Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
    • (1963) Am. Soc. Rev. , vol.28 , pp. 55
    • Macaulay, S.1
  • 336
    • 21144468370 scopus 로고
    • Rules Versus Standards: An Economic Analysis
    • note
    • See, e.g., Louis Kaplow, Rules Versus Standards: An Economic Analysis, 42 Duke L.J. 557, 566, 579-80, 599-601 (1992).
    • (1992) Duke L.J. 557 , vol.42
    • Kaplow, L.1
  • 337
    • 84892420233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Note also that if nonlegalistic decisions by a dependent judge have a higher payoff than legalistic decisions, which in turn have a higher payoff than nonlegalistic decisions by an independent judge (that is, if a > l-c), society strictly prefers a dependent judge, irrespective of the judge's propensity for legalism.
  • 339
    • 84892427369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • There is a fourth possibility: the first effect could be negative and the second positive.
  • 341
    • 41549134995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge
    • see Michael J. Mazza, A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge, 39 Gonz. L. Rev. 131 (2003).
    • (2003) Gonz. L. Rev. , vol.39 , pp. 131
    • Mazza, M.J.1
  • 342
    • 0003897575 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws 156-66 (Anne M. Cohler et al. eds. & trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1989) (1748).
    • (1989) The Spirit of the Laws , pp. 156-166
    • Montesquieu1
  • 343
    • 84875855662 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Citizens United v. FEC
    • Citizens United v. FEC, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).
    • (2010) U.S. , vol.558 , pp. 310
  • 344
    • 78650703254 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Poll: Large Majority Opposes Supreme Court's Decision on Campaign Financing
    • note
    • See, e.g., Dan Eggen, Poll: Large Majority Opposes Supreme Court's Decision on Campaign Financing, Wash. Post (Feb. 17, 2010, 4:38 PM), http://www.washingtonpost.com/ wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/17/AR2010021701151.html?sid=ST2010021702073 ("Americans of both parties overwhelmingly oppose a Supreme Court ruling that allows corporations and unions to spend as much as they want on political campaigns.").
    • (2010) Wash. Post
    • Eggen, D.1
  • 345
    • 84892377215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 395 (Stevens, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).
    • Citizens United , vol.558 , pp. 395
  • 346
    • 84892387699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • [Citizens United] will open the floodgates for special interests, including foreign corporations, to spend without limit in our elections
    • note
    • See, e.g., Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union, 2010 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. 55, at 8 (Jan. 27, 2010), available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ pkg/DCPD-201000055/pdf/DCPD-201000055.pdf ("[Citizens United] will open the floodgates for special interests, including foreign corporations, to spend without limit in our elections.").
    • (2010) Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. , vol.55 , pp. 8
  • 347
    • 33745681459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rasul v. Bush
    • note
    • Contrast, for example, the Court's limitation of executive power in Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004), which held that federal courts have jurisdiction to hear habeas challenges by aliens held at Guantanamo Bay.
    • (2004) U.S. , vol.542 , pp. 466
  • 348
    • 84855829373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law Unplugged
    • note
    • see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2010) Emory L.J. , vol.59
    • Rodriguez, D.B.1
  • 349
    • 84855829373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law Unplugged
    • note
    • see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2010) Emory L.J. , vol.59
    • Rodriguez, D.B.1
  • 350
    • 84855829373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law Unplugged
    • note
    • see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2010) Emory L.J. , vol.59
    • Rodriguez, D.B.1
  • 351
    • 4744338546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Office of Democracy & Governance, U.S. Agency for Int'l Dev., Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality (rev. ed. 2002), available at http://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/pdfs/pnacm00 7.pdf.
    • (2002) Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality
  • 352
    • 4744338546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Office of Democracy & Governance, U.S. Agency for Int'l Dev., Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality (rev. ed. 2002), available at http://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/pdfs/pnacm00 7.pdf.
    • (2002) Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality
  • 353
    • 84855829373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Rule of Law Unplugged
    • note
    • see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
    • (2010) Emory L.J. , vol.59
    • Rodriguez, D.B.1
  • 354
    • 84892392495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Assuming, of course, that legalistic decisions yield a higher social payoff than nonlegalistic decisions.
  • 355
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 356
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 357
    • 84892426549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
    • (2010) Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
    • Parker, T.1
  • 358
    • 84892416770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a concise summary
  • 359
    • 54249138129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
    • see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
    • (2008) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.107
    • Stephenson, M.C.1
  • 360
    • 84928222734 scopus 로고
    • The Role of Constitutional and Political Theory in Administrative Law
    • note{reversed video bullet}
    • Richard J. Pierce, Jr., The Role of Constitutional and Political Theory in Administrative Law, 64 Tex. L. Rev. 469, 520 (1985).
    • (1985) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.64
    • Pierce Jr., R.J.1
  • 361
    • 84892423719 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A large segment of literature debates whether control by the president or Congress will maximize agency responsiveness.
  • 362
    • 54249138129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
    • see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
    • (2008) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.107
    • Stephenson, M.C.1
  • 363
    • 0038468411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Beyond Accountability: Arbitrariness and Legitimacy in the Administrative State
    • See Lisa Schultz Bressman, Beyond Accountability: Arbitrariness and Legitimacy in the Administrative State, 78 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 461 (2003).
    • (2003) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.78 , pp. 461
    • Bressman, L.S.1
  • 364
    • 84892385146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a different take on optimal insulation of agencies
  • 365
    • 54249138129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
    • 53+56-53+64
    • see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
    • (2008) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.107
    • Stephenson, M.C.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.