-
1
-
-
84855903348
-
Varnum v. Brien
-
note
-
Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
-
(2009)
N.W.2d
, vol.763
, pp. 862
-
-
-
2
-
-
84892423335
-
Iowa Ousts 3 Justices After Gay-Marriage Ruling
-
note
-
Grant Schulte, Iowa Ousts 3 Justices After Gay-Marriage Ruling, USA Today, Nov. 4, 2010, at A8, available at http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/2010-11-03-gay-marriage-iowa-election_N.htm.
-
(2010)
USA Today
-
-
Schulte, G.1
-
4
-
-
84892427378
-
-
note
-
556 U.S. 868 (2009).
-
(2009)
, vol.556
, pp. 868
-
-
-
5
-
-
84892408610
-
-
note
-
Caperton, 556 U.S. at 872-76.
-
Caperton
, vol.556
, pp. 872-876
-
-
-
6
-
-
84892408610
-
-
note
-
Caperton, 556 U.S. at 872-76.
-
Caperton
, vol.556
, pp. 872-876
-
-
-
7
-
-
84892384325
-
-
note
-
For a small slice of the literature produced in the wake of these decisions
-
-
-
-
8
-
-
84892414803
-
Big Money and Impartial Justice: Can They Live Together?
-
see, for example, Bert Brandenburg, Big Money and Impartial Justice: Can They Live Together?, 52 Ariz. L. Rev. 207 (2010).
-
(2010)
Ariz. L. Rev.
, vol.52
, pp. 207
-
-
Brandenburg, B.1
-
9
-
-
76349106414
-
Electing Judges, Judging Elections, and the Lessons of Caperton
-
Pamela S. Karlan, Electing Judges, Judging Elections, and the Lessons of Caperton, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 80 (2009).
-
(2009)
Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.123
, pp. 80
-
-
Karlan, P.S.1
-
10
-
-
76349093607
-
What Everybody Knows and What Too Few Accept
-
Lawrence Lessig, What Everybody Knows and What Too Few Accept, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 104 (2009).
-
(2009)
Harv. L. Rev.
, vol.123
, pp. 104
-
-
Lessig, L.1
-
11
-
-
79956064701
-
Choosing (and Recusing) Our State Court Justices Wisely
-
note
-
Sandra Day O'Connor, Remark, "Choosing (and Recusing) Our State Court Justices Wisely", 99 Geo. L.J. 151 (2010).
-
(2010)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.99
, pp. 151
-
-
O'Connor, S.D.1
-
12
-
-
84892400612
-
Constitutionalizing Judicial Ethics: Judicial Elections After Republican Party of Minnesota v. White, Caperton, and Citizens United
-
note
-
Ronald D. Rotunda, Hartman Hotz Lecture, Constitutionalizing Judicial Ethics: Judicial Elections After Republican Party of Minnesota v. White, Caperton, and Citizens United, 64 Ark. L. Rev. 1 (2011).
-
(2011)
Ark. L. Rev.
, vol.64
, pp. 1
-
-
Rotunda, R.D.1
-
13
-
-
84892402446
-
-
note
-
The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
-
The Federalist
, Issue.78
, pp. 392
-
-
-
15
-
-
3142589903
-
-
note
-
Brutus, Essay XV (1788), reprinted in 2 The Complete Anti-Federalist 437, 442 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981). Two centuries have hardly altered the public rhetoric. In recent years, former Republican president George W. Bush and former Democratic house speaker Nancy Pelosi have affirmed their commitments to judicial independence.
-
(1788)
The Complete Anti-Federalist
, vol.2
-
-
Brutus1
-
16
-
-
84892400494
-
After DeLay Remarks, Bush Says He Supports 'Independent Judiciary'
-
note
-
See David D. Kirkpatrick, After DeLay Remarks, Bush Says He Supports 'Independent Judiciary', N.Y. Times, Apr. 9, 2005, at A15, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/09/politics/09judges.html?_r=1.
-
(2005)
N.Y. Times
-
-
Kirkpatrick, D.D.1
-
17
-
-
84892412201
-
Respecting the Constitution and the Role of the Supreme Court
-
note
-
Nancy Pelosi, Op-Ed., Respecting the Constitution and the Role of the Supreme Court, Chi. Trib., Apr. 19, 2012, at 19, available at http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-04-19/ opinion/ct-perspec-0419-pelosi-20120419_1_judicial-review-federal-courts-supreme-court. But not all politicians have followed suit. According to former Republican house speaker Newt Gingrich, we "have judges who are dictatorial and arrogant, who pretend that they are the dominant branch and who issue orders that clearly are against the Constitution."
-
Chi. Trib.
, pp. 19
-
-
Pelosi, N.1
-
18
-
-
84892394724
-
Gingrich: Congress, President Can Ignore Courts
-
note
-
Lucy Madison, Gingrich: Congress, President Can Ignore Courts, Face the Nation (Oct. 9, 2011, 1:56 PM) (internal quotation marks omitted), http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/10/09/ftn/ main20117838.shtml?tag=contentMain;contentBody.Gingrich suggested that such judges be subpoenaed or even arrested.
-
(2011)
Face the Nation
-
-
Madison, L.1
-
19
-
-
84892401876
-
Gingrich: Gov't Branches Should Rule 2 out of 3
-
note
-
Lucy Madison, Gingrich: Gov't Branches Should Rule 2 out of 3, Face the Nation (Dec. 18, 2011, 1:19 PM), http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-3460_162-57344825/gingrich-govt-branches-should-rule-2-out-of-3. Democratic president Barack Obama has also challenged, or appeared to challenge, courts in recent years.
-
(2011)
Face the Nation
-
-
Madison, L.1
-
20
-
-
84892426774
-
Obama Takes a Shot at Supreme Court over Healthcare
-
note
-
See, e.g., Jeff Mason, Obama Takes a Shot at Supreme Court over Healthcare, Reuters (Apr. 2, 2012, 6:45 PM), http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/02/us-obama-healthcare-idUSBRE8310WP2012 0402 (reporting on President Obama's public statement that a decision by the Supreme Court to overturn the Affordable Care Act would constitute "judicial activism").
-
(2012)
Reuters
-
-
Mason, J.1
-
21
-
-
84892377283
-
State of the Union: The Slam, the Scowl and the Separation of Powers
-
note
-
Terry Moran, State of the Union: The Slam, the Scowl and the Separation of Powers, ABC News (Jan. 28, 2010), http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/State_of_the_Union/state-of-the-union-president-obama-justice-alito-political-theater/story?id=9688639 (discussing President Obama's "extraordinary step of bashing a decision of the Supreme Court in his State of the Union address").
-
(2010)
ABC News
-
-
Moran, T.1
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22
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
23
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
24
-
-
0348195836
-
Judging in a Corner of the Law
-
Frederick Schauer, Judging in a Corner of the Law, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1717, 1732 (1988).
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Schauer, F.1
-
25
-
-
85050835056
-
Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence
-
See, e.g., Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence, 35 Law & Contemp. Probs. 108 (1970).
-
(1970)
Law & Contemp. Probs.
, vol.35
, pp. 108
-
-
Ervin Jr., S.J.1
-
26
-
-
34247378647
-
Why Judicial Elections Stink
-
note
-
See, e.g., Charles Gardner Geyh, Why Judicial Elections Stink, 64 Ohio St. L.J. 43, 51 (2003) (discussing the "judicial independence 'problem' caused by electing judges").
-
(2003)
Ohio St. L.J.
, vol.64
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
27
-
-
78649550582
-
Interpretation on the Borderline: Constitution, Canons, Direct Democracy
-
note
-
See, e.g., Philip P. Frickey, Interpretation on the Borderline: Constitution, Canons, Direct Democracy, 1996 Ann. Surv. Am. L. 477, 482 ("[T]he countermajoritarian difficulty is usually posited as a concern with unelected judges who have life tenure. displacing the choices of elected representatives. ").
-
(1996)
Ann. Surv. Am. L.
-
-
Frickey, P.P.1
-
28
-
-
1942473819
-
Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?
-
note
-
See, e.g., Gregory A. Huber & Sanford C. Gordon, Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?, 48 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 247 (2004) (finding that elected judges impose harsher sentences as their elections draw nearer).
-
(2004)
Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.48
, pp. 247
-
-
Huber, G.A.1
Gordon, S.C.2
-
29
-
-
84933494219
-
The Use of Authority in Statutory Interpretation: An Empirical Analysis
-
note
-
See, e.g., Nicholas S. Zeppos, The Use of Authority in Statutory Interpretation: An Empirical Analysis, 70 Tex. L. Rev. 1073, 1120-21 (1992) (stating that "[o]ne obvious solution" to the countermajoritarian difficulty "is to constrain the judge, " which some argue can be accomplished in statutory interpretation cases by strict adherence to text).
-
(1992)
Tex. L. Rev.
, vol.70
-
-
Zeppos, N.S.1
-
30
-
-
14944372325
-
Judicial Independence in International Tribunals
-
note
-
See, e.g., Eric A. Posner & John C. Yoo, Judicial Independence in International Tribunals, 93 Calif. L. Rev. 1, 3 (2005) (arguing that dependent international tribunals are superior to independent ones).
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(2005)
Calif. L. Rev.
, vol.93
-
-
Posner, E.A.1
Yoo, J.C.2
-
31
-
-
3543057126
-
Is an Independent Judiciary Necessary for Democracy?
-
See, e.g., Robert M. Howard & Henry F. Carey, Is an Independent Judiciary Necessary for Democracy?, 87 Judicature 284 (2004).
-
(2004)
Judicature
, vol.87
, pp. 284
-
-
Howard, R.M.1
Carey, H.F.2
-
32
-
-
0042538969
-
Judicial Independence and Democratization: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis
-
Christopher M. Larkins, Judicial Independence and Democratization: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis, 44 Am. J. Comp. L. 605 (1996).
-
(1996)
Am. J. Comp. L.
, vol.44
, pp. 605
-
-
Larkins, C.M.1
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33
-
-
79251595457
-
Judiciaries in Corrupt Societies
-
note
-
See, e.g., Mikael Priks, Judiciaries in Corrupt Societies, 12 Econ. Governance 75 (2011) (examining the relationship between judicial independence and corruption at different levels of government).
-
(2011)
Econ. Governance
, vol.12
, pp. 75
-
-
Priks, M.1
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34
-
-
79954993207
-
Legal Infrastructure, Judicial Independence, and Economic Development
-
note
-
See, e.g., Daniel M. Klerman, Legal Infrastructure, Judicial Independence, and Economic Development, 19 Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. & Dev. L.J. 427 (2007) (reviewing literature on independence and economic growth).
-
(2007)
Pac. McGeorge Global Bus. & Dev. L.J.
, vol.19
, pp. 427
-
-
Klerman, D.M.1
-
35
-
-
24144465756
-
The Value of Judicial Independence: Evidence from Eighteenth Century England
-
note
-
Daniel M. Klerman & Paul G. Mahoney, The Value of Judicial Independence: Evidence from Eighteenth Century England, 7 Am. L. & Econ. Rev. 1 (2005) (examining the relationship between judicial independence and equity markets).
-
(2005)
Am. L. & Econ. Rev.
, vol.7
, pp. 1
-
-
Klerman, D.M.1
Mahoney, P.G.2
-
36
-
-
0346642340
-
Judicial Checks and Balances
-
note
-
Rafael La Porta et al., Judicial Checks and Balances, 112 J. Pol. Econ. 445, 445 (2004) ("We find strong support for the proposition that both judicial independence and constitutional review are associated with greater freedom. ").
-
(2004)
J. Pol. Econ.
, vol.112
-
-
Porta, R.L.1
-
37
-
-
42549157941
-
The Irony of Judicial Elections
-
note
-
David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
-
(2008)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.108
-
-
Pozen, D.E.1
-
40
-
-
84892388070
-
-
note
-
On the question of when self-interested political actors will make judges independent
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
4043050173
-
Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?
-
F. Andrew Hanssen, Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?, 94 Am. Econ. Rev. 712 (2004).
-
(2004)
Am. Econ. Rev.
, vol.94
, pp. 712
-
-
Andrew Hanssen, F.1
-
45
-
-
9944253918
-
The Political Origins of Judicial Empowerment Through Constitutionalization: Lessons from Four Constitutional Revolutions
-
Ran Hirschl, The Political Origins of Judicial Empowerment Through Constitutionalization: Lessons from Four Constitutional Revolutions, 25 Law & Soc. Inquiry 91, 100-01 (2000).
-
(2000)
Law & Soc. Inquiry
, vol.25
-
-
Hirschl, R.1
-
46
-
-
0001047705
-
The Independent Judiciary in an Interest-Group Perspective
-
William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, The Independent Judiciary in an Interest-Group Perspective, 18 J.L. & Econ. 875 (1975).
-
(1975)
J.L. & Econ.
, vol.18
, pp. 875
-
-
Landes, W.M.1
Posner, R.A.2
-
47
-
-
0000241339
-
The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach
-
J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach, 23 J. Legal Stud. 721 (1994).
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(1994)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.23
, pp. 721
-
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Mark Ramseyer, J.1
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48
-
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0035529090
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Information and Judicial Review: A Signaling Game of Legislative-Judicial Interaction
-
James R. Rogers, Information and Judicial Review: A Signaling Game of Legislative-Judicial Interaction, 45 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 84, 95 (2001).
-
(2001)
Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.45
-
-
Rogers, J.R.1
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49
-
-
30944438168
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A Positive Analysis of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers, or: Why Do We Have an Independent Judiciary?
-
Eli M. Salzberger, A Positive Analysis of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers, or: Why Do We Have an Independent Judiciary?, 13 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 349 (1993).
-
(1993)
Int'l Rev. L. & Econ.
, vol.13
, pp. 349
-
-
Salzberger, E.M.1
-
50
-
-
0042170056
-
"When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review
-
Matthew C. Stephenson, "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review, 32 J. Legal Stud. 59 (2003).
-
(2003)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.32
, pp. 59
-
-
Stephenson, M.C.1
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51
-
-
0035529978
-
Legislative-Judicial Relations: A Game-Theoretic Approach to Constitutional Review
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and Georg Vanberg, Legislative-Judicial Relations: A Game-Theoretic Approach to Constitutional Review, 45 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 346, 347 (2001).
-
(2001)
Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.45
-
-
Vanberg, G.1
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53
-
-
84892421579
-
-
note
-
For discussions and different uses of the term
-
-
-
-
54
-
-
0039527122
-
Federal Judges and the Judicial Branch: Their Independence and Accountability
-
see, for example, Gordon Bermant & Russell R. Wheeler, Federal Judges and the Judicial Branch: Their Independence and Accountability, 46 Mercer L. Rev. 835 (1995).
-
(1995)
Mercer L. Rev.
, vol.46
, pp. 835
-
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Bermant, G.1
Wheeler, R.R.2
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55
-
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0347507691
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The Architecture of Judicial Independence
-
Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 315
-
-
Burbank, S.B.1
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57
-
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62149102075
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Judicial Independence: How Can You Tell It When You See It? And, Who Cares?
-
note
-
Charles M. Cameron, Judicial Independence: How Can You Tell It When You See It? And, Who Cares?, in Judicial Independence at the Crossroads, supra, at 134.
-
Judicial Independence at the Crossroads
, pp. 134
-
-
Cameron, C.M.1
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58
-
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84886388148
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Challenges and Opportunities of Judicial Independence Research
-
note
-
Tom S. Clark & Jeffrey K. Staton, Challenges and Opportunities of Judicial Independence Research, L. & Cts., Summer 2011, at 10.
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(2011)
L. & Cts.
, pp. 10
-
-
Clark, T.S.1
Staton, J.K.2
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60
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34648846181
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The State of the Onion: Peeling Back the Layers of America's Ambivalence Toward Judicial Independence
-
Charles Gardner Geyh, The State of the Onion: Peeling Back the Layers of America's Ambivalence Toward Judicial Independence, 82 Ind. L.J. 1215 (2007).
-
(2007)
Ind. L.J.
, vol.82
, pp. 1215
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
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61
-
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0348137764
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Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
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Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 535
-
-
Karlan, P.S.1
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62
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33845343404
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Nonpromotion and Judicial Independence
-
note
-
Daniel Klerman, Commentary, Nonpromotion and Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 455 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 455
-
-
Klerman, D.1
Commentary2
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64
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77954753411
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The Many Faces of Judicial Independence
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Alex Kozinski, The Many Faces of Judicial Independence, 14 Ga. St. U. L. Rev. 861 (1998).
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(1998)
Ga. St. U. L. Rev.
, vol.14
, pp. 861
-
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Kozinski, A.1
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65
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33947385873
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Identifying "Independence"
-
Sanford Levinson, Identifying "Independence", 86 B.U. L. Rev. 1297 (2006).
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(2006)
B.U. L. Rev.
, vol.86
, pp. 1297
-
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Levinson, S.1
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66
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0041916442
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Federal Judicial Independence: Constitutional and Political Perspectives
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Martin H. Redish, Federal Judicial Independence: Constitutional and Political Perspectives, 46 Mercer L. Rev. 697 (1995).
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Mercer L. Rev.
, vol.46
, pp. 697
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Redish, M.H.1
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67
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34547537024
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Judicial Independence: Often Cited, Rarely Understood
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Lydia Brashear Tiede, Judicial Independence: Often Cited, Rarely Understood, 15 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 129 (2006).
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(2006)
J. Contemp. Legal Issues
, vol.15
, pp. 129
-
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Tiede, L.B.1
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68
-
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0347507675
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The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence
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Frances Kahn Zemans, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 625 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 625
-
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Zemans, F.K.1
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69
-
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84892416243
-
-
note
-
By including judges in the list, I mean to signal that I am concerned with the independence of individual judges vis-à-vis all other actors, not the independence of the judiciary as a whole. Of course, the two are related.
-
-
-
-
70
-
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0347507691
-
The Architecture of Judicial Independence
-
Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 315
-
-
Burbank, S.B.1
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71
-
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0348137765
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Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
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See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
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S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 353
-
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Ferejohn, J.1
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72
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Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint
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John A. Ferejohn & Larry D. Kramer, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint, 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 962 (2002).
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N.Y.U. L. Rev.
, vol.77
, pp. 962
-
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Ferejohn, J.A.1
Kramer, L.D.2
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73
-
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84892403679
-
-
note
-
This is a common but not universal approach, as some argue that independence implies or requires impartiality.
-
-
-
-
74
-
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0348137764
-
Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
-
Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 535
-
-
Karlan, P.S.1
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76
-
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34250189581
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Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
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See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
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Jackson, V.C.1
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77
-
-
84892430140
-
-
note
-
For discussion of such factors
-
-
-
-
78
-
-
77958124350
-
The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence
-
see, for example, Charles Gardner Geyh, The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1259, 1279-80 (2008).
-
(2008)
Geo. J. Legal Ethics
, vol.21
-
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Geyh, C.G.1
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79
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6344258710
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Learning About Judicial Independence: Institutional Change in the State Courts
-
F. Andrew Hanssen, Learning About Judicial Independence: Institutional Change in the State Courts, 33 J. Legal Stud. 431 (2004).
-
(2004)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.33
, pp. 431
-
-
Andrew Hanssen, F.1
-
80
-
-
34250189581
-
Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
-
See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
-
Jackson, V.C.1
-
81
-
-
34547550260
-
Conditions for Judicial Independence
-
note
-
McNollgast, Conditions for Judicial Independence, 15 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 105 (2006).
-
(2006)
J. Contemp. Legal Issues
, vol.15
, pp. 105
-
-
McNollgast1
-
82
-
-
0000241339
-
The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach
-
J. Mark Ramseyer, The Puzzling (In)dependence of Courts: A Comparative Approach, 23 J. Legal Stud. 721 (1994).
-
(1994)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.23
, pp. 721
-
-
Mark Ramseyer, J.1
-
83
-
-
0042170056
-
"When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review
-
Matthew C. Stephenson, "When the Devil Turns. ": The Political Foundations of Independent Judicial Review, 32 J. Legal Stud. 59 (2003).
-
(2003)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.32
, pp. 59
-
-
Stephenson, M.C.1
-
85
-
-
57349096591
-
Rescuing Judicial Accountability from the Realm of Political Rhetoric
-
note
-
See generally Charles Gardner Geyh, Rescuing Judicial Accountability from the Realm of Political Rhetoric, 56 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 911 (2006). People debate what judges should be accountable for.
-
(2006)
Case W. Res. L. Rev.
, vol.56
, pp. 911
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
86
-
-
84858246347
-
Iowa's 2010 Judicial Election: Appropriate Accountability or Rampant Passion?
-
note
-
See, e.g., Roy A. Schotland, Iowa's 2010 Judicial Election: Appropriate Accountability or Rampant Passion?, 46 Ct. Rev. 118 (2011), available at http://scholarship.law.georgetown. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1680&context=facpub.
-
(2011)
Ct. Rev.
, vol.46
, pp. 118
-
-
Schotland, R.A.1
-
87
-
-
84892381218
-
Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
-
note
-
See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
-
(2008)
Ariz. L. Rev.
, vol.50
, pp. 15
-
-
O'Connor, S.D.1
Jones, R.A.2
-
89
-
-
1942490471
-
Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
-
note
-
But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
, pp. 1969
-
-
Grodin, J.R.1
-
90
-
-
84892391539
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., There Goes the Judge: Women Rout a Rape-Condoning Wisconsin Jurist, Time, Sept. 19, 1977, at 26 (reporting on a state court judge who was recalled from office after setting free a rapist and stating, "[W]hether women like it or not, they are sex objects").
-
(1977)
There Goes the Judge: Women Rout a Rape-Condoning Wisconsin Jurist
-
-
-
91
-
-
34250189581
-
Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
-
See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
-
Jackson, V.C.1
-
92
-
-
57349162134
-
Methods of Judicial Selection & Their Impact on Judicial Independence
-
note
-
See generally Charles Gardner Geyh, Methods of Judicial Selection & Their Impact on Judicial Independence, Daedalus, Fall 2008, at 86.
-
(2008)
Daedalus
, pp. 86
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
93
-
-
4043050173
-
Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?
-
F. Andrew Hanssen, Is There a Politically Optimal Level of Judicial Independence?, 94 Am. Econ. Rev. 712 (2004).
-
(2004)
Am. Econ. Rev.
, vol.94
, pp. 712
-
-
Andrew Hanssen, F.1
-
94
-
-
77958124350
-
The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence
-
see, for example, Charles Gardner Geyh, The Endless Judicial Selection Debate and Why It Matters for Judicial Independence, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1259, 1279-80 (2008).
-
(2008)
Geo. J. Legal Ethics
, vol.21
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
95
-
-
63649155236
-
Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice
-
note
-
See, e.g., Joanna M. Shepherd, Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice, 58 Duke L.J. 623, 629 (2009) (finding evidence that "contributions from interest groups" to judges' election campaigns "are associated with increases in the probability that judges will vote for the litigants favored by those interest groups").
-
(2009)
Duke L.J.
, vol.58
-
-
Shepherd, J.M.1
-
96
-
-
84892381218
-
Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
-
note
-
See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
-
(2008)
Ariz. L. Rev.
, vol.50
, pp. 15
-
-
O'Connor, S.D.1
Jones, R.A.2
-
98
-
-
84892409629
-
-
note
-
In practice, judges probably care if their decisions are enforced, and this probably affects their behavior. For a discussion
-
-
-
-
100
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
101
-
-
0347507691
-
The Architecture of Judicial Independence
-
Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 315
-
-
Burbank, S.B.1
-
102
-
-
77954753087
-
Judicial Independence in the United States
-
note
-
see also Stephen G. Breyer, Judicial Independence in the United States, 40 St. Louis U. L.J. 989, 994 (1996) (expressing similar ideas).
-
(1996)
St. Louis U. L.J.
, vol.40
-
-
Breyer, S.G.1
-
103
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
104
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
106
-
-
84892393576
-
-
note
-
For a concise tour of the two-century debate over life tenure
-
-
-
-
107
-
-
41549134995
-
A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge
-
see Michael J. Mazza, A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge, 39 Gonz. L. Rev. 131 (2003).
-
(2003)
Gonz. L. Rev.
, vol.39
, pp. 131
-
-
Mazza, M.J.1
-
108
-
-
84892395773
-
-
note
-
For early, classic expositions of this argument
-
-
-
-
109
-
-
84892399631
-
-
note
-
The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
-
The Federalist
, Issue.78
, pp. 392
-
-
-
110
-
-
0003897575
-
-
note
-
Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws 156-66 (Anne M. Cohler et al. eds. & trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1989) (1748).
-
(1989)
The Spirit of the Laws
, pp. 156-166
-
-
Montesquieu1
-
112
-
-
84892387011
-
-
note
-
Again, for early, classic expositions
-
-
-
-
113
-
-
84892383144
-
-
note
-
The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
-
The Federalist
, Issue.78
, pp. 392
-
-
-
114
-
-
84892413031
-
Letter from Andrew Jackson to Andrew J. Donelson
-
note
-
Letter from Andrew Jackson to Andrew J. Donelson (July 5, 1822) in 3 Correspondence of Andrew Jackson 167 (John Spencer Bassett ed., 1928).
-
(1822)
Correspondence of Andrew Jackson
, vol.3
, pp. 167
-
-
-
115
-
-
84892422648
-
-
note
-
A vast literature develops these arguments.
-
-
-
-
116
-
-
22644450736
-
Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography
-
See, e.g., Amy B. Atchison et al., Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 723 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 723
-
-
Atchison, A.B.1
-
118
-
-
0347507691
-
The Architecture of Judicial Independence
-
Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 315
-
-
Burbank, S.B.1
-
119
-
-
85050835056
-
Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence
-
See, e.g., Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Separation of Powers: Judicial Independence, 35 Law & Contemp. Probs. 108 (1970).
-
(1970)
Law & Contemp. Probs.
, vol.35
, pp. 108
-
-
Ervin Jr., S.J.1
-
120
-
-
84925926615
-
The Essence of Judicial Independence
-
Irving R. Kaufman, The Essence of Judicial Independence, 80 Colum. L. Rev. 671 (1980)
-
(1980)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.80
, pp. 671
-
-
Kaufman, I.R.1
-
121
-
-
22644450736
-
Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography
-
See, e.g., Amy B. Atchison et al., Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability: A Selected Bibliography, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 723 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 723
-
-
Atchison, A.B.1
-
122
-
-
84892397119
-
-
note
-
Again, a vast literature addresses these ideas.
-
-
-
-
123
-
-
0348137765
-
Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
-
See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 353
-
-
Ferejohn, J.1
-
124
-
-
0348137765
-
Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence
-
See generally John Ferejohn, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Explaining Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 353 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 353
-
-
Ferejohn, J.1
-
125
-
-
84892411928
-
Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) Examinations in the UK-2003
-
note
-
See P.C. Shrimpton et al., Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) Examinations in the UK-2003 Review 31 (2005), available at http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/ HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1194947420292.
-
(2005)
Review
, pp. 31
-
-
Shrimpton, P.C.1
-
126
-
-
84855829373
-
The Rule of Law Unplugged
-
note
-
see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
-
(2010)
Emory L.J.
, vol.59
-
-
Rodriguez, D.B.1
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127
-
-
85190014598
-
A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law
-
note
-
Brian Z. Tamanaha, A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law, in Relocating the Rule of Law 3, 11 (Gianluigi Palombella & Neil Walker eds., 2009) ("An institutionalised, independent judiciary is crucial to both functions of the rule of law. ").
-
(2009)
Relocating the Rule of Law
-
-
Tamanaha, B.Z.1
-
128
-
-
0347303096
-
The Rule of Law
-
note
-
William C. Whitford, The Rule of Law, 2000 Wis. L. Rev. 723, 738 ("[J]udicial independence is widely seen as critically necessary to the effective implementation of [the rule of law]. ").
-
(2000)
Wis. L. Rev.
-
-
Whitford, W.C.1
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129
-
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0347507675
-
The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence
-
Frances Kahn Zemans, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 625 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 625
-
-
Zemans, F.K.1
-
130
-
-
84885835839
-
Thoughts on Goldilocks and Judicial Independence
-
Frank B. Cross, Thoughts on Goldilocks and Judicial Independence, 64 Ohio St. L.J. 195, 217 (2003).
-
(2003)
Ohio St. L.J.
, vol.64
-
-
Cross, F.B.1
-
132
-
-
3142589903
-
-
note
-
Brutus, Essay XV (1788), reprinted in 2 The Complete Anti-Federalist 437, 442 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981). Two centuries have hardly altered the public rhetoric. In recent years, former Republican president George W. Bush and former Democratic house speaker Nancy Pelosi have affirmed their commitments to judicial independence.
-
(1788)
The Complete Anti-Federalist
, vol.2
-
-
Brutus, E.X.V.1
-
133
-
-
0346172501
-
Ambivalence and Accountability
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
-
(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
-
-
Seidman, L.M.1
-
135
-
-
57349108884
-
Justice in Peril: The Endangered Balance Between Impartial Courts and Judicial Election Campaigns
-
Bert Brandenburg & Roy A. Schotland, Justice in Peril: The Endangered Balance Between Impartial Courts and Judicial Election Campaigns, 21 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 1229, 1232 (2008).
-
(2008)
Geo. J. Legal Ethics
, vol.21
-
-
Brandenburg, B.1
Schotland, R.A.2
-
136
-
-
3142625754
-
The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
-
note
-
see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
-
(1995)
U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.62
-
-
Croley, S.P.1
-
138
-
-
42549157941
-
The Irony of Judicial Elections
-
note
-
David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
-
(2008)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.108
-
-
Pozen, D.E.1
-
139
-
-
84872970870
-
Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co
-
note
-
Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co., 556 U.S. 868, 872-76 (2009).
-
(2009)
U.S.
, vol.556
-
-
-
140
-
-
84892405110
-
Davis Wants His Judges to Stay in Line
-
note
-
Davis Wants His Judges to Stay in Line, S.F. Chron., Mar. 1, 2000, at A3, available at 2000 WLNR 4939353 (internal quotation marks omitted).
-
(2000)
S.F. Chron.
-
-
-
141
-
-
34548627310
-
Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking
-
note
-
E.g., Damon M. Cann, Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking, 7 St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. 281 (2007) (finding evidence that elected judges favor lawyers who contribute to their campaigns).
-
(2007)
St. Pol. & Pol'y Q.
, vol.7
, pp. 281
-
-
Cann, D.M.1
-
142
-
-
41749102212
-
State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges
-
note
-
See Paul Brace & Brent D. Boyea, State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges, 52 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 360 (2008) (finding that public support for capital punishment influences judges' decisions to uphold death sentences).
-
(2008)
Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.52
, pp. 360
-
-
Brace, P.1
Boyea, B.D.2
-
143
-
-
1942473819
-
Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?
-
note
-
See, e.g., Gregory A. Huber & Sanford C. Gordon, Accountability and Coercion: Is Justice Blind When It Runs for Office?, 48 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 247 (2004) (finding that elected judges impose harsher sentences as their elections draw nearer).
-
(2004)
Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.48
, pp. 247
-
-
Huber, G.A.1
Gordon, S.C.2
-
144
-
-
68049095998
-
Are Appointed Judges Strategic Too?
-
note
-
See, e.g., Joanna M. Shepherd, Are Appointed Judges Strategic Too?, 58 Duke L.J. 1589 (2009) (finding evidence that appointed judges favor government litigants).
-
(2009)
Duke L.J.
, vol.58
, pp. 1589
-
-
Shepherd, J.M.1
-
145
-
-
84892428538
-
-
note
-
Of course, extralegal factors affect the decisions of independent judges too. For discussion and abundant citations
-
-
-
-
147
-
-
77949816671
-
The Controversy over Electing Judges and Advocacy in Political Science
-
note
-
See, e.g., Melinda Gann Hall, The Controversy over Electing Judges and Advocacy in Political Science, 30 Just. Sys. J. 284, 285 (2009) ("[P]ressures from electoral politics [can] forc[e] judges to abandon their own political preferences and act in accordance with the rule of law. ").
-
(2009)
Just. Sys. J.
, vol.30
-
-
Hall, M.G.1
-
148
-
-
84892381218
-
Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
-
note
-
See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
-
(2008)
Ariz. L. Rev.
, vol.50
, pp. 15
-
-
O'Connor, S.D.1
Jones, R.A.2
-
149
-
-
84892426549
-
-
note
-
Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
-
(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
-
-
Parker, T.1
-
151
-
-
3142750700
-
State Regulation of Medical Necessity: The Case of Weight-Reduction Surgery
-
note
-
See Mark A. Hall, State Regulation of Medical Necessity: The Case of Weight-Reduction Surgery, 53 Duke L.J. 653, 664 (2003) (identifying from interviews that "public backlash" is one reason for insurers becoming "'managed care lite'-i.e., scaling back on the list of procedures that require medical necessity review prior to treatment").
-
(2003)
Duke L.J.
, vol.53
-
-
Hall, M.A.1
-
152
-
-
84892381218
-
Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process
-
note
-
See, e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor & RonNell Andersen Jones, Reflections on Arizona's Judicial Selection Process, 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 15 (2008) (arguing that executive appointment facilitates accountability).
-
(2008)
Ariz. L. Rev.
, vol.50
, pp. 15
-
-
O'Connor, S.D.1
Jones, R.A.2
-
155
-
-
84892408370
-
-
note
-
The language in the text simplifies the inquiry. The real inquiry is whether a relatively dependent judge would apply the law "correctly, " however correctly is defined, more often than a more independent judge in the same setting hearing the same cases.
-
-
-
-
156
-
-
84892397120
-
-
note
-
For evidence that state court judges objectively apply legal rules, at least some of the time
-
-
-
-
157
-
-
84856498055
-
Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
-
see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
-
(2011)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.40
, pp. 333
-
-
Gilbert, M.D.1
-
161
-
-
84856498055
-
Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
-
see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
-
(2011)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.40
, pp. 333
-
-
Gilbert, M.D.1
-
164
-
-
0002280050
-
Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
-
Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
-
(1986)
Sw. L.J.
, vol.40
, pp. 31
-
-
Dubois, P.L.1
-
165
-
-
84892406531
-
-
note
-
For studies on politics, popular opinion, and state court decisions
-
-
-
-
166
-
-
35348871147
-
Competition as Accountability in State Supreme Court Elections
-
note
-
see, for example, Melinda Gann Hall, Competition as Accountability in State Supreme Court Elections, in Running for Judge 165 (Matthew J. Streb ed., 2007).
-
(2007)
Running for Judge
, pp. 165
-
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Hall, M.G.1
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167
-
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84965940318
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Justices as Representatives: Elections and Judicial Politics in the American States
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Melinda Gann Hall, Justices as Representatives: Elections and Judicial Politics in the American States, 23 Am. Pol. Q. 485 (1995).
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(1995)
Am. Pol. Q.
, vol.23
, pp. 485
-
-
Hall, M.G.1
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168
-
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0035533814
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State Supreme Courts in American Democracy: Probing the Myths of Judicial Reform
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Melinda Gann Hall, State Supreme Courts in American Democracy: Probing the Myths of Judicial Reform, 95 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 315 (2001).
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(2001)
Am. Pol. Sci. Rev.
, vol.95
, pp. 315
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Hall, M.G.1
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169
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62749130778
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The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
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Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
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(2009)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.38
, pp. 169
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-
Shepherd, J.M.1
-
170
-
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41749102212
-
State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges
-
note
-
See Paul Brace & Brent D. Boyea, State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges, 52 Am. J. Pol. Sci. 360 (2008) (finding that public support for capital punishment influences judges' decisions to uphold death sentences).
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Am. J. Pol. Sci.
, vol.52
, pp. 360
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Brace, P.1
Boyea, B.D.2
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175
-
-
84892416543
-
-
note
-
But again, the inquiry is relative. The question is not whether independent or dependent judges respond to popular opinion; the questions are which type of judge responds more and under what conditions?
-
-
-
-
176
-
-
85050173782
-
A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America
-
See, e.g., Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 Am. J. Legal Hist. 190, 215-16 (1993).
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(1993)
Am. J. Legal Hist.
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-
Nelson, C.1
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177
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0039308527
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Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?
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Roy A. Schotland, Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?, 2 J.L. & Pol. 57, 58-72 (1985).
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(1985)
J.L. & Pol.
, vol.2
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Schotland, R.A.1
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178
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62749130778
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The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
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Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
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(2009)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.38
, pp. 169
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-
Shepherd, J.M.1
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179
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62749130778
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The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
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Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
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(2009)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.38
, pp. 169
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Shepherd, J.M.1
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180
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77954873038
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Economic Crisis and the Rise of Judicial Elections and Judicial Review
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Jed Handelsman Shugerman, Economic Crisis and the Rise of Judicial Elections and Judicial Review, 123 Harv. L. Rev. 1061, 1133 (2010).
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Harv. L. Rev.
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Shugerman, J.H.1
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181
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34548627310
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Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking
-
note
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E.g., Damon M. Cann, Justice for Sale? Campaign Contributions and Judicial Decisionmaking, 7 St. Pol. & Pol'y Q. 281 (2007) (finding evidence that elected judges favor lawyers who contribute to their campaigns).
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(2007)
St. Pol. & Pol'y Q.
, vol.7
, pp. 281
-
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Cann, D.M.1
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182
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42549157941
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The Irony of Judicial Elections
-
note
-
David E. Pozen, The Irony of Judicial Elections, 108 Colum. L. Rev. 265, 271 (2008) ("Often, the debate over judicial selection methods is distilled to a single tradeoff: independence versus accountability. ").
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Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.108
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Pozen, D.E.1
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183
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57649106443
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Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure
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note
-
Judith Resnik, Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure, 26 Cardozo L. Rev. 579, 600 (2004) ("[S]kepticism about universal answers to questions of judicial selection is in order. [B]eing a democracy dictates less than might be expected about methodologies for judicial selection. "). See generally Evan Haynes, The Selection and Tenure of Judges (1944).
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Cardozo L. Rev.
, vol.26
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Resnik, J.1
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184
-
-
84892386297
-
-
note
-
I recognize that "society's needs and preferences" is a loaded phrase given disagreements about what constitutes social welfare and the difficulties inherent in aggregating group preferences. I use the phrase loosely.
-
-
-
-
186
-
-
84892390534
-
-
note
-
For excellent, recent discussions of some of these themes
-
-
-
-
187
-
-
84872700871
-
Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation
-
see Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl & Ethan J. Leib, Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation, 79 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1215 (2012).
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(2012)
U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.79
, pp. 1215
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Bruhl, A.-A.P.1
Leib, E.J.2
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188
-
-
78649513943
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Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism
-
note
-
David E. Pozen, Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 2047, 2076-86 (2010). Both articles, like much of the literature, blur the line between representativeness and commitment to legalism.
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(2010)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.110
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Pozen, D.E.1
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189
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3142625754
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The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
-
note
-
see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
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(1995)
U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.62
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Croley, S.P.1
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190
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0348199092
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Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
-
note
-
Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
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Va. L. Rev.
, vol.82
, pp. 1
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Klarman, M.J.1
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191
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3142625754
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The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law
-
note
-
see also Steven P. Croley, The Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries and the Rule of Law, 62 U. Chi. L. Rev. 689, 696-97 (1995) ("[T]o the extent majoritarian pressures influence judicial decisions because of judges' electoral calculations, elective judiciaries seem, at least at first glance, irreconcilable with one of the fundamental principles underlying constitutionalism. " (emphasis omitted).
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U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.62
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Croley, S.P.1
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192
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Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
-
note
-
Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
-
(1996)
Va. L. Rev.
, vol.82
, pp. 1
-
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Klarman, M.J.1
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193
-
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0348199092
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Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
-
note
-
Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
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Va. L. Rev.
, vol.82
, pp. 1
-
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Klarman, M.J.1
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194
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77954135397
-
In re Marriage Cases
-
note
-
E.g., In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008), superseded by state constitutional amendment, Cal. Const. art. 1, § 7.5, invalidated by
-
(2008)
P.3d
, vol.183
, pp. 384
-
-
-
195
-
-
84855889633
-
Perry v. Schwarzenegger
-
note
-
Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010), aff'd sub nom.
-
(2010)
F. Supp. 2d
, vol.704
, pp. 921
-
-
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196
-
-
84870179624
-
Perry v. Brown
-
note
-
Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012)
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(2012)
F.3d
, vol.671
, pp. 1052
-
-
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197
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84897834954
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Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
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Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
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(2013)
S. Ct.
, vol.133
, pp. 2652
-
-
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198
-
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84855903348
-
Varnum v. Brien
-
note
-
Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
-
(2009)
N.W.2d
, vol.763
, pp. 862
-
-
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199
-
-
0348137764
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Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
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Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
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(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 535
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Karlan, P.S.1
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200
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Legal Indeterminacy
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See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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Leiter, B.1
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201
-
-
84929064950
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Legal Indeterminacy
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note
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See Kenneth Kress, Legal Indeterminacy, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 283, 297 (1989) (using a similar example to illustrate determinacy).
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Calif. L. Rev.
, vol.77
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Kress, K.1
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202
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84870179624
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Perry v. Brown
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note
-
See Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012).
-
(2012)
F.3d
, vol.671
, pp. 1052
-
-
-
203
-
-
84897834954
-
Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
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Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
-
(2013)
S. Ct.
, vol.133
, pp. 2652
-
-
-
204
-
-
84896514493
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Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority
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See generally Jules L. Coleman & Brian Leiter, Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 549 (1993).
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(1993)
U. Pa. L. Rev.
, vol.142
, pp. 549
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Coleman, J.L.1
Leiter, B.2
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205
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0040818534
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Legal Indeterminacy
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See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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Leiter, B.1
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206
-
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84883934423
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On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma
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See Lawrence B. Solum, On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma, 54 U. Chi. L. Rev. 462, 473 (1987).
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(1987)
U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.54
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Solum, L.B.1
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207
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0040818534
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Legal Indeterminacy
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See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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-
Leiter, B.1
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208
-
-
0039040009
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Legal Realism
-
note
-
Cf. Brian Leiter, Legal Realism, in A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory 261, 266 (Dennis Patterson ed., 1996) ("Indeterminacy enters not just in the interpretation of statutes and precedents, but also in the wide latitude judges have in how to characterize the facts of a case. ").
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(1996)
A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory
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-
Leiter, B.1
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209
-
-
84896514493
-
Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority
-
See generally Jules L. Coleman & Brian Leiter, Determinacy, Objectivity, and Authority, 142 U. Pa. L. Rev. 549 (1993).
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(1993)
U. Pa. L. Rev.
, vol.142
, pp. 549
-
-
Coleman, J.L.1
Leiter, B.2
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212
-
-
84936068266
-
-
note
-
Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 239 (1986) (introducing Hercules, a construct of an ideal judge).
-
(1986)
Law's Empire
, pp. 239
-
-
Dworkin, R.1
-
213
-
-
1942490471
-
Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
-
note
-
But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
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(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
, pp. 1969
-
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Grodin, J.R.1
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215
-
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84929064950
-
Legal Indeterminacy
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note
-
See Kenneth Kress, Legal Indeterminacy, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 283, 297 (1989) (using a similar example to illustrate determinacy).
-
(1989)
Calif. L. Rev.
, vol.77
-
-
Kress, K.1
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216
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0039567711
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Easy Cases
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Frederick Schauer, Easy Cases, 58 S. Cal. L. Rev. 399 (1985).
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S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.58
, pp. 399
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Schauer, F.1
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217
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84936031667
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The Player and the Cards: Nihilism and Legal Theory
-
Joseph William Singer, The Player and the Cards: Nihilism and Legal Theory, 94 Yale L.J. 1 (1984).
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Yale L.J.
, vol.94
, pp. 1
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Singer, J.W.1
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218
-
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84883934423
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On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma
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See Lawrence B. Solum, On the Indeterminacy Crisis: Critiquing Critical Dogma, 54 U. Chi. L. Rev. 462, 473 (1987).
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U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.54
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Solum, L.B.1
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219
-
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68049083043
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Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899
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note
-
Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America 29, 34-38, 42-43 (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984). For other discussions of this argument
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(1984)
The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America
-
-
Hall, K.L.1
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220
-
-
0002280050
-
Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
-
Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
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(1986)
Sw. L.J.
, vol.40
, pp. 31
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Dubois, P.L.1
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221
-
-
1942490471
-
Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections
-
note
-
But see Joseph R. Grodin, Developing a Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1969 (1988) (criticizing retention elections).
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(1988)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
, pp. 1969
-
-
Grodin, J.R.1
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222
-
-
0348137764
-
Two Concepts of Judicial Independence
-
Pamela S. Karlan, Two Concepts of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 535 (1999).
-
(1999)
S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 535
-
-
Karlan, P.S.1
-
223
-
-
85050173782
-
A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America
-
See, e.g., Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 Am. J. Legal Hist. 190, 215-16 (1993).
-
(1993)
Am. J. Legal Hist.
, vol.37
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Nelson, C.1
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224
-
-
77954753087
-
Judicial Independence in the United States
-
note
-
see also Stephen G. Breyer, Judicial Independence in the United States, 40 St. Louis U. L.J. 989, 994 (1996) (expressing similar ideas).
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(1996)
St. Louis U. L.J.
, vol.40
-
-
Breyer, S.G.1
-
226
-
-
84892417534
-
-
note
-
For a compact discussion with a plethora of references
-
-
-
-
228
-
-
84892377514
-
-
note
-
On the problems of discerning intent
-
-
-
-
229
-
-
0039079572
-
Congress Is a "They, " Not an "It": Legislative Intent as Oxymoron
-
see, for example, Kenneth A. Shepsle, Congress Is a "They, " Not an "It": Legislative Intent as Oxymoron, 12 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 239 (1992).
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Int'l Rev. L. & Econ.
, vol.12
, pp. 239
-
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Shepsle, K.A.1
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231
-
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0347771587
-
Textualism as a Nondelegation Doctrine
-
note
-
See John F. Manning, Textualism as a Nondelegation Doctrine, 97 Colum. L. Rev. 673 (1997). For a helpful overview and dissection of this debate
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Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.97
, pp. 673
-
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Manning, J.F.1
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232
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18444417148
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What Is Textualism?
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see Caleb Nelson, What Is Textualism?, 91 Va. L. Rev. 347 (2005).
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Va. L. Rev.
, vol.91
, pp. 347
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Nelson, C.1
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233
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8344244497
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The Morality of Law
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See, e.g., H.L.A. Hart, The Morality of Law, 78 Harv. L. Rev. 1281 (1965) (book review).
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, pp. 1281
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Hart, H.L.A.1
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237
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85190014598
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A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law
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note
-
Brian Z. Tamanaha, A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law, in Relocating the Rule of Law 3, 11 (Gianluigi Palombella & Neil Walker eds., 2009) ("An institutionalised, independent judiciary is crucial to both functions of the rule of law. ").
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(2009)
Relocating the Rule of Law
-
-
Tamanaha, B.Z.1
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238
-
-
84892400327
-
-
note
-
This assumes that people make plans and develop expectations based on law. This is a standard assumption, but it may be wrong. In certain circumstances people may rely on, and expect, nonlegalistic decisions.
-
-
-
-
239
-
-
84892404143
-
-
note
-
Nonlegalistic decisions can constrain government actors too but presumably in less predictable ways.
-
-
-
-
242
-
-
84892377751
-
-
note
-
For an interesting discussion and several plausible examples
-
-
-
-
243
-
-
84887862041
-
Is Legality Political?
-
see Frederick Schauer, Is Legality Political?, 53 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 481 (2011).
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Wm. & Mary L. Rev.
, vol.53
, pp. 481
-
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Schauer, F.1
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249
-
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Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
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Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
-
(1986)
Sw. L.J.
, vol.40
, pp. 31
-
-
Dubois, P.L.1
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250
-
-
0002280050
-
Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections
-
Philip L. Dubois, Accountability, Independence, and the Selection of State Judges: The Role of Popular Judicial Elections, 40 Sw. L.J. 31 (1986).
-
(1986)
Sw. L.J.
, vol.40
, pp. 31
-
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Dubois, P.L.1
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251
-
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0347507691
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The Architecture of Judicial Independence
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Stephen B. Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. Cal. L. Rev. 315 (1999).
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S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.72
, pp. 315
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Burbank, S.B.1
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252
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0346172501
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Ambivalence and Accountability
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note
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See, e.g., Louis Michael Seidman, Ambivalence and Accountability, 61 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1571, 1571 (1988) ("[A]n independent judiciary, unco-opted by the political aims of the ruling majority and willing to defend individuals' rights against government abuse, seems crucial to liberal democracy. ").
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S. Cal. L. Rev.
, vol.61
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Seidman, L.M.1
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253
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84856498055
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Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication
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see Michael D. Gilbert, Does Law Matter? Theory and Evidence from Single-Subject Adjudication, 40 J. Legal Stud. 333 (2011).
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J. Legal Stud.
, vol.40
, pp. 333
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Gilbert, M.D.1
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255
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84872700871
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Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation
-
see Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl & Ethan J. Leib, Elected Judges and Statutory Interpretation, 79 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1215 (2012).
-
(2012)
U. Chi. L. Rev.
, vol.79
, pp. 1215
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Bruhl, A.-A.P.1
Leib, E.J.2
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256
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84872234227
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Dualistic Values in the Age of International Legisprudence
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note
-
Jonathan Turley, Dualistic Values in the Age of International Legisprudence, 44 Hastings L.J. 185, 204-05 (1993) (tying theories of statutory interpretation to judicial independence).
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Hastings L.J.
, vol.44
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Turley, J.1
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257
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Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism
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note
-
David E. Pozen, Judicial Elections as Popular Constitutionalism, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 2047, 2076-86 (2010). Both articles, like much of the literature, blur the line between representativeness and commitment to legalism.
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(2010)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.110
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Pozen, D.E.1
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258
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14944372325
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Judicial Independence in International Tribunals
-
note
-
See, e.g., Eric A. Posner & John C. Yoo, Judicial Independence in International Tribunals, 93 Calif. L. Rev. 1, 3 (2005) (arguing that dependent international tribunals are superior to independent ones).
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(2005)
Calif. L. Rev.
, vol.93
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Posner, E.A.1
Yoo, J.C.2
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259
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84892394828
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-
note
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Representative in terms of welfare implications, which in this Article means implications for aggregate utility.
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261
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84892427687
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note
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At least not to a complete one. Below, I assume that judges derive utility from two activities: adjudicating and legislating.
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263
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84892412354
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note
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Here is a fuller and slightly more technical explanation of my methodological choice. To construct a utility function for judges, I need to make assumptions not only about the sources of judges' utility-I have settled on adjudicating and legislating-but also about the relationship between independence and those sources. Specifically, I need to assume that greater independence either increases or decreases the weight judges place on adjudicating and legislating, respectively. As soon as I make such an assumption, the model itself, or at least the version I have constructed, becomes superfluous. It adds complexity to this Article but no additional insights. My contribution, and the action in this Article, lies in thinking through possible relationships between independence and sources of judicial utility, not in committing to any particular one.
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note
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It could be a pure legal question or a mixed question of law and fact.
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265
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note
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Treating the determinacy of law as binary-the law provides a unique answer to the legal question or no answer at all-simplifies the analysis at the cost of realism. Future work could take a more nuanced approach by allowing for a continuum of determinacy.
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266
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84892397263
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note
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In future work, I hope to relax this assumption.
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268
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84892426549
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note
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Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
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(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
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Parker, T.1
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269
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84892426549
-
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note
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Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
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(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
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Parker, T.1
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270
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84892390904
-
-
note
-
These are standard inputs in the judicial utility functions constructed by scholars.
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-
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271
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84908697469
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Law and Policy: More and Less Than a Dichotomy
-
note
-
Cf. Lawrence Baum, Law and Policy: More and Less Than a Dichotomy, in What's Law Got to Do with It? 71, 71 (Charles Gardner Geyh ed., 2011) ("[T]he most frequent question about judicial behavior is the balance between law and policy. ").
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(2011)
What's Law Got to Do with It?
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Baum, L.1
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272
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0002190833
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What Do Judges and Justices Maximize? (The Same Thing Everybody Else Does)
-
note
-
But see Richard A. Posner, What Do Judges and Justices Maximize? (The Same Thing Everybody Else Does), 3 Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev. 1 (1993) (positing a more complicated function).
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(1993)
Sup. Ct. Econ. Rev.
, vol.3
, pp. 1
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Posner, R.A.1
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273
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0348199092
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Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
-
note
-
Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
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(1996)
Va. L. Rev.
, vol.82
, pp. 1
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Klarman, M.J.1
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274
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84892400188
-
-
note
-
I assume that judges never make mistakes, so every nonlegalistic decision in a determinate case is intentional. Alternatively, I could assume that independent and dependent judges are equally likely to make mistakes. Either way, the analysis would be the same. Some might claim that independent judgeships attract higher-quality judges, and one might suppose that means that independent judges make fewer mistakes. I do not consider that possibility. I note that such a claim is hard to evaluate, in part because sensible empirical measures of quality are hard to come by.
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-
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275
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77953827681
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Professionals or Politicians: The Uncertain Empirical Case for an Elected Rather Than Appointed Judiciary
-
note
-
Cf. Stephen J. Choi et al., Professionals or Politicians: The Uncertain Empirical Case for an Elected Rather Than Appointed Judiciary, 26 J.L. Econ. & Org. 290 (2010) (attempting to develop metrics for judicial quality).
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(2010)
J.L. Econ. & Org.
, vol.26
, pp. 290
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Choi, S.J.1
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276
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84892411236
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-
note
-
The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
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The Federalist
, Issue.78
, pp. 392
-
-
-
277
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0040818534
-
Legal Indeterminacy
-
See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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Leiter, B.1
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278
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0040818534
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Legal Indeterminacy
-
See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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Leiter, B.1
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279
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0040818534
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Legal Indeterminacy
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See Brian Leiter, Legal Indeterminacy, 1 Legal Theory 481, 481-85 (1995).
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(1995)
Legal Theory
, vol.1
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Leiter, B.1
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281
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23044527235
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What's Law Got to Do with It? Judicial Behavioralists Test the "Legal Model" of Judicial Decision Making
-
note
-
See Howard Gillman, What's Law Got to Do with It? Judicial Behavioralists Test the "Legal Model" of Judicial Decision Making, 26 Law & Soc. Inquiry 465, 490 (2001) (reviewing Harold J. Spaeth & Jeffrey A. Segal, Majority Rule or Minority Will (1999). Under a "post-positivist" account, holding this belief might make the decision legalistic. Id. at 486.
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(1999)
Law & Soc. Inquiry
, vol.26
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Gillman, H.1
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282
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15744397664
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Bush v. Gore
-
note
-
Consider, for example, the opinion in Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000) (per curiam). It looks like other opinions, but by many (but of course not all) accounts, it is nonlegalistic, at least with respect to the remedy. For a critical discussion
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(2000)
U.S.
, vol.531
, pp. 98
-
-
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287
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84892401889
-
-
note
-
Here are the conditions: there is a unique median citizen, issues are separable, and with respect to each issue, citizens are distributed symmetrically around the median and have single-peaked preferences that are symmetrically intense.
-
-
-
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288
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84892378887
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note
-
Here are the conditions: there is a unique median citizen, issues are separable, and with respect to each issue, citizens are distributed symmetrically around the median and have single-peaked preferences that are symmetrically intense.
-
-
-
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289
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84892412238
-
-
note
-
Note that I have switched from the median voter to the median citizen. The citizen, and not the voter, is the relevant benchmark given my conception of social welfare.
-
-
-
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290
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84892384234
-
-
note
-
This point may merit some elaboration. I assume that the social payoff of a judge's decision in a case where the law is indeterminate depends entirely on the proximity of that decision to the decision the median citizen would prefer. I have adopted this assumption to make the analysis simpler and more precise. Nothing substantive turns on it, however. One could leave the discussion general, assuming only that "good" decisions (however defined) increase social welfare and "bad" decisions reduce it. Alternatively, one could adopt a precise but different (and dubious) approach, assuming, for example, that decisions closer to the preference of an extreme liberal or an extreme conservative increase social welfare and decisions further away reduce it. All one needs to run the analysis is some benchmark for evaluating the social payoff of decisions in cases where judges exercise policymaking discretion. I have chosen proximity to the median citizen, but others could choose different benchmarks and still use the framework.
-
-
-
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291
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84892429222
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-
note
-
Here is an intuitive explanation: I assume that the value of legalism does not depend on whether a judge is independent or dependent.
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-
-
-
293
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84892386265
-
-
note
-
I assume that the value of a legalistic decision is fixed, but in reality, it may vary by judge. To illustrate, if citizens expect a dependent judge to fold under political pressure and make nonlegalistic decisions, they may not rely on the law to guide their behavior. That would make the payoff of a legalistic decision by a dependent judge lower than the payoff of an equivalent decision by an independent judge.
-
-
-
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296
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34250189581
-
Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
-
See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
-
Jackson, V.C.1
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297
-
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34250189581
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Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
-
See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
-
Jackson, V.C.1
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298
-
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84892419952
-
-
note
-
In notation, l > c, and l > c + a.
-
-
-
-
299
-
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84892393296
-
-
note
-
Note that a dependent judge may on average be more congruent with the median citizen even if he sometimes acts in the interests of narrow groups.
-
-
-
-
300
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84892402841
-
-
note
-
These individuals or groups would have to oppose existing law, in general or in a particular case. If they supported existing law, they would encourage and try to increase a judge's propensity for legalism.
-
-
-
-
301
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34250189581
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Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges
-
See generally Vicki C. Jackson, Packages of Judicial Independence: The Selection and Tenure of Article III Judges, 95 Geo. L.J. 965 (2007).
-
(2007)
Geo. L.J.
, vol.95
, pp. 965
-
-
Jackson, V.C.1
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302
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84859793300
-
Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
-
note
-
Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
-
(2012)
Cornell L. Rev.
, vol.97
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
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304
-
-
84859793300
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Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
-
note
-
Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
-
(2012)
Cornell L. Rev.
, vol.97
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
305
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-
62749130778
-
The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting
-
Joanna M. Shepherd, The Influence of Retention Politics on Judges' Voting, 38 J. Legal Stud. 169 (2009).
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(2009)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.38
, pp. 169
-
-
Shepherd, J.M.1
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306
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84892379787
-
In Too Many States, Judges Face Reprisals for Unpopular Rulings
-
note
-
Editorial, In Too Many States, Judges Face Reprisals for Unpopular Rulings, USA Today, Oct. 19, 2010, at A8, available at http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/ 2010-10-19-editorial19_ST_N.htm.
-
(2010)
USA Today
-
-
Editorial1
-
307
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84925926615
-
The Essence of Judicial Independence
-
Irving R. Kaufman, The Essence of Judicial Independence, 80 Colum. L. Rev. 671 (1980)
-
(1980)
Colum. L. Rev.
, vol.80
, pp. 671
-
-
Kaufman, I.R.1
-
308
-
-
84892405813
-
-
note
-
To be clear, we cannot draw that conclusion if we approach the question of optimal independence from a utilitarian or other consequentialist point of view, as I do. The authors I quote, and many others, may (perhaps implicitly) approach the question from a deontological standpoint, favoring greater independence because they believe that it will improve impartiality, which justice and morality require. In that case, my work is not a criticism of their analyses but rather a consequentialist counterpart.
-
-
-
-
309
-
-
68049083043
-
Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899
-
note
-
Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America 29, 34-38, 42-43 (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984). For other discussions of this argument
-
(1984)
The New High Priests: Lawyers in Post-Civil War America
-
-
Hall, K.L.1
-
310
-
-
84892375344
-
-
note
-
I am not the first to make this point.
-
-
-
-
312
-
-
0348199092
-
Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions
-
note
-
Cf. Michael J. Klarman, Rethinking the Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Revolutions, 82 Va. L. Rev. 1 (1996) (discussing and critiquing the common view that independent judicial review protects minorities).
-
(1996)
Va. L. Rev.
, vol.82
, pp. 1
-
-
Klarman, M.J.1
-
314
-
-
84870179624
-
Perry v. Brown
-
note
-
See, e.g., Perry v. Brown, 671 F.3d 1052 (9th Cir. 2012)
-
(2012)
F.3d
, vol.671
, pp. 1052
-
-
-
315
-
-
84897834954
-
Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry
-
Vacated on other grounds sub nom. Hollingsworth v. Perry, 133 S. Ct. 2652 (2013).
-
(2013)
S. Ct.
, vol.133
, pp. 2652
-
-
-
316
-
-
84855903348
-
Varnum v. Brien
-
note
-
Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
-
(2009)
N.W.2d
, vol.763
, pp. 862
-
-
-
318
-
-
84892428571
-
-
note
-
This is, of course, a common line of reasoning.
-
-
-
-
320
-
-
84892409321
-
Unconventional Wisdom: The Roberts Court's Proper Support of Judicial Elections
-
note
-
Scott W. Gaylord, Unconventional Wisdom: The Roberts Court's Proper Support of Judicial Elections, 2011 Mich. St. L. Rev. 1521, 1549-50.
-
(2011)
Mich. St. L. Rev.
-
-
Gaylord, S.W.1
-
321
-
-
84892401226
-
-
note
-
If an independent judge has a higher propensity for legalism and is at least as congruent with the median citizen as a dependent judge, or if an independent judge is more congruent with the median citizen and has at least as high a propensity for legalism as a dependent judge, society strictly prefers an independent judge, regardless of the determinacy of law. Analogous propositions hold for a dependent judge.
-
-
-
-
322
-
-
84892407561
-
-
note
-
Determinacy also matters if the opposite trade-off arises: independent judges make more nonlegalistic decisions, each imposing a low cost on average, and dependent judges make fewer nonlegalistic decisions, each imposing a high cost on average. I briefly address that potential trade-off in Section III.E.
-
-
-
-
323
-
-
84936068266
-
-
note
-
Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 239 (1986) (introducing Hercules, a construct of an ideal judge).
-
(1986)
Law's Empire
, pp. 239
-
-
Dworkin, R.1
-
324
-
-
11844303951
-
Can Any Legal Theory Constrain Any Judicial Decision?
-
note
-
E.g., Anthony D'Amato, Essay, Can Any Legal Theory Constrain Any Judicial Decision?, 43 U. Miami L. Rev. 513 (1989).
-
(1989)
U. Miami L. Rev.
, vol.43
, pp. 513
-
-
D'Amato, A.1
-
325
-
-
84859793300
-
Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?
-
note
-
Charles Gardner Geyh, Can the Rule of Law Survive Judicial Politics?, 97 Cornell L. Rev. 191, 238-44 (2012) (discussing the relationship between independence, impartiality, and due process).
-
(2012)
Cornell L. Rev.
, vol.97
-
-
Geyh, C.G.1
-
326
-
-
0042961150
-
The Judicial Function and the Elusive Goal of Principled Decisionmaking
-
note
-
See, e.g., Harry T. Edwards, Feature, The Judicial Function and the Elusive Goal of Principled Decisionmaking, 1991 Wis. L. Rev. 837.
-
(1991)
Wis. L. Rev.
, pp. 837
-
-
Edwards, H.T.1
-
327
-
-
84892391256
-
-
note
-
In notation, l > c and l > c + a.
-
-
-
-
328
-
-
84892394341
-
-
note
-
The Federalist No. 78, at 392 (Alexander Hamilton) (Ian Shapiro ed., 2009).
-
The Federalist
, Issue.78
, pp. 392
-
-
-
329
-
-
84892397140
-
-
note
-
Or, alternatively, if independent judges have a lower propensity for legalism and dependent judges are less congruent with the median citizen.
-
-
-
-
330
-
-
84892425888
-
-
note
-
For evidence of this
-
-
-
-
331
-
-
0000079986
-
Opting out of the Legal System: Extralegal Contractual Relations in the Diamond Industry
-
note
-
see, for example, Lisa Bernstein, Opting out of the Legal System: Extralegal Contractual Relations in the Diamond Industry, 21 J. Legal Stud. 115 (1992) (discussing the diamond industry's reliance on extralegal enforcement of business norms).
-
(1992)
J. Legal Stud.
, vol.21
, pp. 115
-
-
Bernstein, L.1
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332
-
-
0001875669
-
Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
-
note
-
Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
-
(1963)
Am. Soc. Rev.
, vol.28
, pp. 55
-
-
Macaulay, S.1
-
333
-
-
0001875669
-
Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
-
note
-
Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
-
(1963)
Am. Soc. Rev.
, vol.28
, pp. 55
-
-
Macaulay, S.1
-
334
-
-
0001875669
-
Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study
-
note
-
Stewart Macaulay, Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study, 28 Am. Soc. Rev. 55 (1963) (discussing instances of, and reasons for, failure to use contract law in the business community).
-
(1963)
Am. Soc. Rev.
, vol.28
, pp. 55
-
-
Macaulay, S.1
-
336
-
-
21144468370
-
Rules Versus Standards: An Economic Analysis
-
note
-
See, e.g., Louis Kaplow, Rules Versus Standards: An Economic Analysis, 42 Duke L.J. 557, 566, 579-80, 599-601 (1992).
-
(1992)
Duke L.J. 557
, vol.42
-
-
Kaplow, L.1
-
337
-
-
84892420233
-
-
note
-
Note also that if nonlegalistic decisions by a dependent judge have a higher payoff than legalistic decisions, which in turn have a higher payoff than nonlegalistic decisions by an independent judge (that is, if a > l-c), society strictly prefers a dependent judge, irrespective of the judge's propensity for legalism.
-
-
-
-
339
-
-
84892427369
-
-
note
-
There is a fourth possibility: the first effect could be negative and the second positive.
-
-
-
-
341
-
-
41549134995
-
A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge
-
see Michael J. Mazza, A New Look at an Old Debate: Life Tenure and the Article III Judge, 39 Gonz. L. Rev. 131 (2003).
-
(2003)
Gonz. L. Rev.
, vol.39
, pp. 131
-
-
Mazza, M.J.1
-
342
-
-
0003897575
-
-
note
-
Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws 156-66 (Anne M. Cohler et al. eds. & trans., Cambridge Univ. Press 1989) (1748).
-
(1989)
The Spirit of the Laws
, pp. 156-166
-
-
Montesquieu1
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343
-
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84875855662
-
Citizens United v. FEC
-
Citizens United v. FEC, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).
-
(2010)
U.S.
, vol.558
, pp. 310
-
-
-
344
-
-
78650703254
-
Poll: Large Majority Opposes Supreme Court's Decision on Campaign Financing
-
note
-
See, e.g., Dan Eggen, Poll: Large Majority Opposes Supreme Court's Decision on Campaign Financing, Wash. Post (Feb. 17, 2010, 4:38 PM), http://www.washingtonpost.com/ wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/17/AR2010021701151.html?sid=ST2010021702073 ("Americans of both parties overwhelmingly oppose a Supreme Court ruling that allows corporations and unions to spend as much as they want on political campaigns.").
-
(2010)
Wash. Post
-
-
Eggen, D.1
-
345
-
-
84892377215
-
-
note
-
See, e.g., Citizens United, 558 U.S. at 395 (Stevens, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).
-
Citizens United
, vol.558
, pp. 395
-
-
-
346
-
-
84892387699
-
[Citizens United] will open the floodgates for special interests, including foreign corporations, to spend without limit in our elections
-
note
-
See, e.g., Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union, 2010 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. 55, at 8 (Jan. 27, 2010), available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ pkg/DCPD-201000055/pdf/DCPD-201000055.pdf ("[Citizens United] will open the floodgates for special interests, including foreign corporations, to spend without limit in our elections.").
-
(2010)
Daily Comp. Pres. Doc.
, vol.55
, pp. 8
-
-
-
347
-
-
33745681459
-
Rasul v. Bush
-
note
-
Contrast, for example, the Court's limitation of executive power in Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004), which held that federal courts have jurisdiction to hear habeas challenges by aliens held at Guantanamo Bay.
-
(2004)
U.S.
, vol.542
, pp. 466
-
-
-
348
-
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84855829373
-
The Rule of Law Unplugged
-
note
-
see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
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(2010)
Emory L.J.
, vol.59
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Rodriguez, D.B.1
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349
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84855829373
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The Rule of Law Unplugged
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note
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see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
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(2010)
Emory L.J.
, vol.59
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-
Rodriguez, D.B.1
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350
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84855829373
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The Rule of Law Unplugged
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note
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see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
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(2010)
Emory L.J.
, vol.59
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Rodriguez, D.B.1
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351
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4744338546
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-
note
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Office of Democracy & Governance, U.S. Agency for Int'l Dev., Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality (rev. ed. 2002), available at http://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/pdfs/pnacm00 7.pdf.
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(2002)
Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality
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-
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352
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4744338546
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-
note
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Office of Democracy & Governance, U.S. Agency for Int'l Dev., Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality (rev. ed. 2002), available at http://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/pdfs/pnacm00 7.pdf.
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(2002)
Guidance for Promoting Judicial Independence and Impartiality
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-
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353
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84855829373
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The Rule of Law Unplugged
-
note
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see also Daniel B. Rodriguez et al., The Rule of Law Unplugged, 59 Emory L.J. 1455, 1479 (2010) ("[A]n independent judiciary is considered by many commentators. as a sine qua non for [the rule of law]. ").
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(2010)
Emory L.J.
, vol.59
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Rodriguez, D.B.1
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354
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84892392495
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note
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Assuming, of course, that legalistic decisions yield a higher social payoff than nonlegalistic decisions.
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-
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355
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84892426549
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note
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Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
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(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
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Parker, T.1
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356
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84892426549
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-
note
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Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
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(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
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Parker, T.1
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357
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84892426549
-
-
note
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Cf. Tom Parker, Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable, Iowa Republican (Aug. 20, 2010), http://theiowarepublican.com/2010/elect-judges-so-they-can-be-held-accountable (arguing that winning a judicial election freed the author "to be a fair and balanced judge on the Alabama Supreme Court").
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(2010)
Elect Judges so They Can Be Held Accountable
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Parker, T.1
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358
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84892416770
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note
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For a concise summary
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-
-
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359
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54249138129
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Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
-
see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
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(2008)
Mich. L. Rev.
, vol.107
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Stephenson, M.C.1
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360
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84928222734
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The Role of Constitutional and Political Theory in Administrative Law
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note{reversed video bullet}
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Richard J. Pierce, Jr., The Role of Constitutional and Political Theory in Administrative Law, 64 Tex. L. Rev. 469, 520 (1985).
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(1985)
Tex. L. Rev.
, vol.64
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Pierce Jr., R.J.1
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361
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84892423719
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note
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A large segment of literature debates whether control by the president or Congress will maximize agency responsiveness.
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-
-
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362
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54249138129
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Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
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see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
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(2008)
Mich. L. Rev.
, vol.107
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Stephenson, M.C.1
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363
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0038468411
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Beyond Accountability: Arbitrariness and Legitimacy in the Administrative State
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See Lisa Schultz Bressman, Beyond Accountability: Arbitrariness and Legitimacy in the Administrative State, 78 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 461 (2003).
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(2003)
N.Y.U. L. Rev.
, vol.78
, pp. 461
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Bressman, L.S.1
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364
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84892385146
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note
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For a different take on optimal insulation of agencies
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365
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54249138129
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Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy
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53+56-53+64
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see Matthew C. Stephenson, Optimal Political Control of the Bureaucracy, 107 Mich. L. Rev. 53, 56-64 (2008).
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(2008)
Mich. L. Rev.
, vol.107
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Stephenson, M.C.1
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