Effects of deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on inhibitory and executive control over prepotent responses in parkinson's disease

Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience

Volumn 7, Issue DEC, 2013, Pages

  Jahanshahi, Marjan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Deep brain stimulation; Executive control; Inhibition; Parkinson's disease; Prepotent responses; Subthalamic nucleus

Indexed keywords

AKINESIA; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; BASAL GANGLION; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; DECISION MAKING; ELECTRIC POTENTIAL; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; EVOKED MUSCLE RESPONSE; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FACTORIAL ANALYSIS; HUMAN; IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDER; IMPULSIVENESS; NERVE CONDUCTION; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; STROOP TEST; SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS;

EID: 84891521296     PISSN: 16625137     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00118     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Aarsland, D., Andersen, K., Larsen, J., Lolk, A., and Kragh-Sørensen, P. (2003). Prevalence and characteristics of dementia in Parkinson disease: an 8-year prospective study. Arch. Neurol. 60, 387-392.doi: 10.1001/archneur. 60.3.387
2. Absher, J. R., Vogt, B. A., Clark, D. G., Flowers, D. L., Gorman, D. G., Keyes, J. W., et al. (2000). Hypersexuality and hemiballism due to subthalamic infarction. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol. Behav. Neurol. 13, 220-229.
3. Afsharpour, S. (1985). Topographical projections of the cerebral cortex to the subthalamic nucleus. J. Comp. Neurol. 236, 14-28.doi: 10.1002/cne. 902360103
4. Alegre, M., Lopez-Azcarate, J., Obeso, I., Wilkinson, L., Rodriguez-Oroz, M. C., Valencia, M., et al. (2013). The subthalamic nucleus is involved in successful inhibition in the stop-signal task: a local field potential study in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol 239, 1-12.doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.08.027
5. Anzak, A., Gaynor, L., Beigi, M., Foltynie, T., Limousin, P., Zrinzo, L., et al. (2013). Subthalamic nucleus gamma oscillations mediate a switch from automatic to controlled processing: a study of random number generation in Parkinson's disease. Neuroimage 64, 284-289.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.08.068
6. Anzak, A., Gaynor, L., Beigi, M., Limousin, P., Hariz, M., Zrinzo, L., et al. (2011). A gamma band specific role of the subthalamic nucleus in switching during verbal fluency tasks in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol. 232, 136-142.doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.07.010
7. Ardouin, C., Voon, V., Worbe, Y., Abouazar, N., Czernecki, V., Hosseini, H., et al. (2006). Pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease improves on chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Mov. Disord. 21, 1941-1946.doi: 10.1002/mds.21098
8. Aron, A. R. (2011). From reactive to proactive and selective control: developing a richer model for stopping inappropriate responses. Biol. Psychiatry 69, e55-e68.doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.024
9. Aron, A. R., Behrens, T. E., Smith, S., Frank, M. J., and Poldrack, R. A. (2007). Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI. J. Neurosci. 27, 3743-3752.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0519-07.2007
10. Aron, A. R., Fletcher, P. C., Bullmore, E. T., Sahakian, B. J., and Robbins, T. W. (2003). Stop-signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 6, 115-116.doi: 10.1038/nn1003
11. Aron, A. R., and Poldrack, R. A. (2006). Cortical and subcortical contributions to Stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus. J. Neurosci. 26, 2424-2433.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4682-05.2006
12. Baddeley, A. D. (1966). The capacity for generating information by randomization. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 18, 119-129.doi: 10.1080/14640746608400019
13. Ballanger, B., van Eimeren, T., Moro, E., Lozano, A. M., Hamani, C., Boulinguez, P., et al. (2009). Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus and impulsivity: release your horses. Ann. Neurol. 66, 817-824.doi: 10.1002/ana.21795
14. Baunez, C., Nieoullon, A., and Amalric, M. (1995). In a rat model of parkin-sonism, lesions of the subthalamic nucleus reverse increases of reaction time but induce a dramatic premature responding deficit. J. Neurosci. 15, 6531-6541.
15. Bejjani, B. P., Damier, P., Arnulf, I., Thivard, L., Bonnet, A. M., Dormont, D., et al. (1999). Transient acute depression induced by high-frequency deep-brain stimulation. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1476-1480.doi: 10.1056/NEJM199905 133401905
16. Bogacz, R., Wagenmakers, E. J., Forstmann, B. U., and Nieuwenhuis, S. (2010). The neural basis of the speed-accuracy tradeoff. Tr e n d s Ne u r o s c i. 33, 10-16.doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2009.09.002
17. Braver, T. S., Cole, M. W., and Yarkoni, T. (2010). Vive less differences! Individual variation in neural mechanisms of executive control. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 20, 242-250.doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2010.03.002
18. Brittain, J. S., Watkins, K. E., Joundi, R. A., Ray, N. J., Holland, P., Green, A. L., et al. (2012). A role for the subthalamic nucleus in response inhibition during conflict. J. Neurosci. 32, 13396-13401.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2259-12.2012
19. Brown, R. G., Soliveri, P., and Jahanshahi, M. (1998). Executive processes in Parkinson's disease-random number generation and response suppression. Neuropsychologia 36, 1355-1362.doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932 (98)00015-3
20. Burbaud, P., Clair, A. H., Langbour, N., Fernandez-Vidal, S., Goillandeau, M., Michelet, T., et al. (2013). Neuronal activity correlated with checking behaviour in the subthalamic nucleus of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain 136(Pt 1), 304-317.doi: 10.1093/brain/aws306
21. Castrioto, A., Lozano, A. M., Poon, Y. Y., Lang, A. E., Fallis, M., Moro, E. (2011). Ten-year outcome of subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson disease: a blinded evaluation. Arch. Neurol. 68, 1550-1556.doi: 10.1001/archneurol.2011.182
22. Cavanagh, J. F., and Frank, M. J. (2013). Stop! Stay tuned for more information. Exp. Neurol. 247, 289-291.doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.01.023
23. Cavanagh, J. F., Wiecki, T. V., Cohen, M. X., Figueroa, C. M., Samanta, J., Sherman, S. J., et al. (2011). Subthalamic nucleus stimulation reverses mediofrontal influence over decision threshold. Nat. Neurosci. 14, 1462-1467.doi: 10.1038/ nn.2925
24. Chamberlain, S. R., Blackwell, A. D., Fineberg, N. A., Robbins, T. W., and Sahakian, B. J. (2005). The neuropsychology of obsessive compulsive disorder: the importance of failures in cognitive and behavioural inhibition as candidate endophenotypic markers. Neurosci. Biobehav. Re v. 29, 399-419.doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.006
25. Chevalier, G., and Deniau, J. M. (1990). Disinhibition as a basic process in the expression of striatal functions. Tr e n d s N e u r o s c i. 13, 277-280.doi: 10.1016/ 0166-2236(90)90109-N
26. Cooper, J. A., Sagar, H. J., Tidswell, P., and Jordan, N. (1994). Slowed central processing in simple and go/no-go reaction time tasks in Parkinson's disease. Brain 117(Pt 3), 517-529.doi: 10.1093/brain/117.3.517
27. Coulthard, E. J., Bogacz, R., Javed, S., Mooney, L. K., Murphy, G., Keeley, S., et al. (2012). Distinct roles of dopamine and subthalamic nucleus in learning and probabilistic decision making. Brain 135(Pt 12), 3721-3734.doi: 10.1093/brain/ aws273
28. Cui, G., Jun, S. B., Jin, X., Pham, M. D., Vogel, S. S., Lovinger, D. M., et al. (2013). Concurrent activation of striatal direct and indirect pathways during action initiation. Nature 494, 238-242.doi: 10.1038/nature11846
29. Czernecki, V., Pillon, B., Houeto, J. L., Welter, M. L., Mesnage, V., Agid, Y., et al. (2005). Does bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus aggravate apathy in Parkinson's disease? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 76, 775-779.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2003.033258
30. Dalley, J. W., Everitt, B. J., and Robbins, T. W. (2011). Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control. Neuron 69, 680-694.doi: 10.1016/j.neuron. 2011.01.020
31. Dalley, J. W., and Roiser, J. P. (2012). Dopamine, serotonin and impulsivity. Neuroscience 215, 42-58.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.03.065
32. Deuschl, G., Schade-Brittinger, C., Krack, P., Volkmann, J., Schäfer, H., Bötzel, K., et al. (2006). A randomized trial of deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 896-908. Erratum in: N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 1289.doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa060281
33. Devinsky, O., Morrell, M. J., and Vogt, B. A. (1995). Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour. Brain 118(Pt 1), 279-306.doi: 10.1093/brain/ 118.1.279
34. Dimitrov, M., Nakic, M., Elpern-Waxman, J., Granetz, J., O'Grady, J., Phipps, M., et al. (2003). Inhibitory attentional control in patients with frontal lobe damage. Brain Cogn. 52, 258-270.doi: 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00080-0
35. Dirnberger, G., Frith, C. D., and Jahanshahi, M. (2005). Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease is associated with altered pallidal-frontal processing. Neuroimage 25, 588-599.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.023
36. Dirnberger, G., and Jahanshahi, M. (2013). Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: a review. J. Neuropsychol. 7, 193-224.doi: 10.1111/jnp.12028
37. Eagle, D. M., Baunez, C., Hutcheson, D. M., Lehmann, O., Shah, A. P., and Robbins, T. W. (2008). Stop-signal reaction-time task performance: role of prefrontal cortex and subthalamic nucleus. Cereb. Cortex 18, 178-188.doi: 10.1093/cercor/ bhm044
38. Edwards, M. J., Huang, Y. Z., Wood, N. W., Rothwell, J. C., and Bhatia, K. P. (2003). Different patterns of electrophysiological deficits in manifesting and non-manifesting carriers of the DYT1 gene mutation. Brain 126(Pt 9), 2074-2080.doi: 10.1093/brain/awg209
39. Emre, M., Aarsland, D., Brown, R., Burn, D., Duyckaerts, C., Mizuno, Y., et al. (2007). Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 22, 1689-1707.doi: 10.1002/mds.21507
40. Evenden, J. L. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 146, 348-361.doi: 10.1007/PL00005481
41. Fasano, A., Romito, L. M., Daniele, A., Piano, C., Zinno, M., Bentivoglio, A. R., et al. (2010). Motor and cognitive outcome in patients with Parkinson's disease 8 years after subthalamic implants. Brain 133, 2664-2676.doi: 10.1093/brain/ awq221
42. Favre, E., Ballanger, B., Thobois, S., Broussolle, E., and Boulinguez, P. (2013). Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, but not dopaminergic medication, improves proactive inhibitory control of movement initiation in Parkinson's disease. Neurotherapeutics 10, 154-167.doi: 10.1007/s13311-012-0166-1
43. Follett, K. A., Weaver, F. M., Stern, M., Hur, K., Harris, C. L., Luo, P., et al. (2010). Pallidal versus subthalamic deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 2077-2091.doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0907083
44. Forstmann, B. U., Dutilh, G., Brown, S., Neumann, J., Von Cramon, D. Y., Ridderinkhof, K. R., et al. (2008). Striatum and pre-SMA facilitate decision-making under time pressure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 17538-17542.doi: 10.1073/pnas.0805903105
45. Frank, M. J. (2006). Hold your horses: a dynamic computational role for the subthalamic nucleus in decision making. Neural Netw. 19, 1120-1136.doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.006
46. Frank, M. J., Samanta, J., Moustafa, A. A., and Sherman, S. J. (2007). Hold your horses: impulsivity, deep brain stimulation, and medication in parkinsonism. Science 318, 1309-1312.doi: 10.1126/science.1146157
47. Friedman, N. P., and Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 133, 101-135.doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101
48. Fumagalli, M., Giannicola, G., Rosa, M., Marceglia, S., Lucchiari, C., Mrakic-Sposta, S., et al. (2011). Conflict-dependent dynamic of subthalamic nucleus oscillations during moral decisions. Soc. Neurosci. 6, 243-256.doi: 10.1080/17470919.2010.515148
49. Gauggel, S., Rieger, M., and Feghoff, T. A. (2004). Inhibition of ongoing responses in patients with Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 75, 539-544.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2003.016469
50. Gläscher, J., Adolphs, R., Damasio, H., Bechara, A., Rudrauf, D., Calamia, M., et al. (2012). Lesion mapping of cognitive control and value-based decision making in the prefrontal cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 14681-14686.doi: 10.1073/pnas.1206608109
51. Green, N., Bogacz, R., Huebl, J., Beyer, A. K., Kühn, A. A., and Heekeren, H. R. (2013). Reduction of influence of task difficulty on perceptual decision making by STN deep brain stimulation. Curr. Biol. 23, 1681-1684.doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.07.001
52. Greenhouse, I., Gould, S., Houser, M., Hicks, G., Gross, J., and Aron, A. R. (2011). Stimulation at dorsal and ventral electrode contacts targeted at the subthalamic nucleus has different effects on motor and emotion functions in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 49, 528-534.doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010. 12.030
53. Halbig, T. D., Tse, W., Frisina, P. G., Baker, B. R., Hollander, E., Shapiro, H., et al. (2009). Subthalamic deep brain stimulation and impulse control in Parkinson's disease. Eur. J. Neurol. 16, 493-497.doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2008.02509.x
54. Haynes, W. I., and Haber, S. N. (2013). The organization of prefrontal-subthalamic inputs in primates provides an anatomical substrate for both functional specificity and integration: implications for basal ganglia models and deep brain stimulation. J. Neurosci. 33, 4804-4814.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4674-12.2013
55. Hely, M., Reid, W., Adena, M., Halliday, G., and Morris, J. (2008). The Sydney mul-ticenter study of Parkinson's disease: the inevitability of dementia at 20 years. Mov. Disord. 23, 837-844.doi: 10.1002/mds.21956
56. Hershey, T., Campbell, M. C., Videen, T.O., Lugar, H. M., Weaver, P. M., Hartlein, J., et al. (2010). Mapping Go-No-Go performance within the subthalamic nucleus region. Brain 133(Pt 12), 3625-3634.doi: 10.1093/brain/awq256
57. Hershey, T., Revilla, F. J., Wernle, A., Gibson, P. S., Dowling, J. L., and Perlmutter, J. S. (2004). Stimulation of STN impairs aspects of cognitive control in PD. Neurology 62, 1110-1114.doi: 10.1212/01.WNL.0000118202.19098.10
58. Herzog, J., Reiff, J., Krack, P., Witt, K., Schrader, B., Müller, D., et al. (2003). Manic episode with psychotic symptoms induced by subthalamic nucleus stimulation in a patient with Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 18, 1382-1384.doi: 10.1002/mds.10530
59. Houeto, J. L., Mallet, L., Mesnage, V., Tezenas du Montcel, S., Behar, C., Gargiulo, M., et al. (2006). Subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson disease: behavior and social adaptation. Arch. Neurol. 63, 1090-1095.doi: 10.1001/archneur.63.8.1090
60. Hughes, T. A., Ross, H. F., Musa, S., Bhattacherjee, S., Nathan, R. N., Mindham, R. H., et al. (2000). A 10-year study of the incidence of and factors predicting dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 54, 1596-1602.doi: 10.1212/ WNL.54.8.1596
61. Isoda, M., and Hikosaka, O. (2007). Switching from automatic to controlled action by monkey medial frontal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 240-248.doi: 10.1038/ nn1830
62. Isoda, M., and Hikosaka, O. (2008). Role for subthalamic nucleus neurons in switching from automatic to controlled eye movement. J. Neurosci. 28, 7209-7218.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0487-08.2008
63. Isoda, M., and Hikosaka, O. (2011). Cortico-basal ganglia mechanisms for overcoming innate, habitual and motivational behaviors. Eur. J. Neurosci. 33, 2058-2069.doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07698.x
64. Jaffard, M., Longcamp, M., Velay, J. L., Anton, J. L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., et al. (2008). Proactive inhibitory control of movement assessed by event-related fMRI. Neuroimage 42, 1196-1206.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.041
65. Jahanshahi, M. (2013). Risky choices link the subthalamic nucleus with pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 28, 1617-1619.doi: 10.1002/mds.25539
66. Jahanshahi, M., Ardouin, C. M., Brown, R. G., Rothwell, J. C., Obeso, J., Albanese, A., et al. (2000a). The impact of deep brain stimulation on executive function in Parkinson's disease. Brain 123(Pt 6), 1142-1154.doi: 10.1093/brain/ 123.6.1142
67. Jahanshahi, M., Dirnberger, G., Fuller, R., and Frith, C. D. (2000b). The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in random number generation: a study with positron emission tomography. Neuroimage 12, 713-725.doi: 10.1006/nimg.2000.0647
68. Jahanshahi, M., Profice, P., Brown, R. G., Ridding, M. C., Dirnberger, G., and Rothwell, J. C. (1998). The effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on suppression of habitual counting during random number generation. Brain 121(Pt 8), 1533-1544.doi: 10.1093/brain/121. 8.1533
69. Jahanshahi, M., Saleem, T., Ho, A. K., Dirnberger, G., and Fuller, R. (2006). Random number generation as an index of controlled processing. Neuropsychology 20, 391-399.doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.20.4.391
70. Jahfari, S., Stinear, C. M., Claffey, M., Verbruggen, F., and Aron, A. R. (2010). Responding with restraint: what are the neurocognitive mechanisms? J. Cogn. Neurosci. 22, 1479-1492.doi: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21307
71. Jahfari, S., Waldorp, L., van den Wildenberg, W. P., Scholte, H. S., Ridderinkhof, K. R., and Forstmann, B. U. (2011). Effective connectivity reveals important roles for both the hyperdirect (Fronto-Subthalamic) and the indirect (Fronto-Striatal-Pallidal) fronto-basal ganglia pathways during response inhibition. J. Neurosci. 31, 6891-6899.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5253-10.2011
72. Kleiner-Fisman, G., Liang, G. S., Moberg, P. J., Ruocco, A. C., Hurtig, H. I., Baltuch, G. H., et al. (2007). Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for severe idiopathic dystonia: impact on severity, neuropsychological status, and quality of life. J. Neurosurg. 107, 29-36.doi: 10.3171/JNS-07/07/0029
73. Krack, P., Hariz, M. I., Baunez, C., Guridi, J., and Obeso, J. A. (2010). Deep brain stimulation: from neurology to psychiatry? Tr e n d s Ne u r o s c i. 33, 474-484.doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.002
74. Krack, P., Kumar, R., Ardouin, C., Dowsey, P. L., McVicker, J. M., Benabid, A. L., et al. (2001). Mirthful laughter induced by subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Mov. Disord. 16, 867-875.doi: 10.1002/mds.1174
75. Kuhn, A. A., Williams, D., Kupsch, A., Limousin, P., Hariz, M., Schneider, G.-H., et al. (2004). Event-related beta desynchronization in human subthala-mic nucleus correlates with motor performance. Brain 127, 735-746.doi: 10.1093/brain/awh106
76. Lambert, C., Zrinzo, L., Nagy, Z., Lutti, A., Hariz, M., Foltynie, T., et al. (2012). Confirmation of functional zones within the human subthalamic nucleus: patterns of connectivity and sub-parcellation using diffusion weighted imaging. Neuroimage 60, 83-94.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.082
77. Li, C. S., Huang, C., Constable, R. T., and Sinha, R. (2006). Imaging response inhibition in a stop-signal task: neural correlates independent of signal monitoring and post-response processing. J. Neurosci. 26, 186-192.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3741-05.2006
78. Li, C. S., Yan, P., Sinha, R., and Lee, T. W. (2008). Subcortical processes of motor response inhibition during a stop signal task. Neuroimage 41, 1352-1363.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.023
79. Lim, S. Y., O'Sullivan, S. S., Kotschet, K., Gallagher, D. A., Lacey, C., Lawrence, A. D., et al. (2009). Dopamine dysregulation syndrome, impulse control disorders and punding after deep brain stimulation surgery for Parkinson's disease. J. Clin. Neurosci. 16, 1148-1152.doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2008.12.010
80. Litvan, I., Aarsland, D., Adler, C., Goldman, J. G., Kulisevsky, J., Mollenhauer, B., et al. (2011). MDS task force on mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease: critical review of PD-MCI. Mov. Disord. 26, 1814-1824.doi: 10.1002/mds.23823
81. Litvan, I., Goldman, J., Tröster, A., Schmand, B., Weintraub, D., Petersen, R., et al. (2012). Diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease: movement disorder society task force guidelines. Mov. Disord. 27, 349-356.doi: 10.1002/mds.24893
82. Logan, G. D., and Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thoughtand action: a theory of an act of control. Psychol. Rev. 91, 295-327.doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.295
83. Mallet, L., Polosan, M., Jaafari, N., Baup, N., Welter, M. L., Fontaine, D., et al. (2008). Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 2121-2134.doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0708514
84. Mansfield, E. L., Karayanidis, F., Jamadar, S., Heathcote, A., and Forstmann, B. U. (2011). Adjustments of response threshold during task switching: a model-based functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Neurosci. 31, 14688-14692.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2390-11.2011
85. Marsden, C. D., and Obeso, J. A. (1994). The functions of the basal ganglia and the paradox of stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson's disease. Brain 117(Pt 4), 877-897.doi: 10.1093/brain/117.4.877
86. Mink, J. W., and Thach, W. T. (1993). Basal ganglia intrinsic circuits and their role in behavior. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 3, 950-957.doi: 10.1016/0959-4388(93)90167-W
87. Mirabella, G., Iaconelli, S., Romanelli, P., Modugno, N., Lena, F., Manfredi, M., et al. (2012). Deep brain stimulation of subthalamic nuclei affects arm response inhibition in Parkinson's patients. Cereb. Cortex 22, 1124-1132.doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr187
88. Nambu, A., Tokuno, H., Inase, M., and Takada, M. (1997). Corticosubthalamic input zones from forelimb representations of the dorsal and ventral divisions of the premotor cortex in the macaque monkey: comparison with the input zones from the primary motor cortex and the supplementary motor area. Neurosci. Lett. 239, 13-16.doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940 (97)00877-X
89. Norman, D. A., and Shallice, T. (1986). "Willed and automatic control of behavior," in Consciousness and Self Regulation: Advances in Research and Theory eds R. Davidson, G. Schwartz, and D. Shapiro (New York, NY: Plenum), 1-18.doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-0629-1_1
90. Obeso, I., Wilkinson, L., Casabona, E., Bringas, M. L., Alvarez, M., Alvarez, L., et al. (2011a). Deficits in inhibitory control and conflict resolution on cognitive and motor tasks in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Brain Res. 212, 371-384.doi: 10.1007/s00221-011-2736-6
91. Obeso, I., Wilkinson, L., and Jahanshahi, M. (2011b). Levodopa medication does not influence motor inhibition or conflict resolution in a conditional stop-signal task in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Brain Res. 213, 435-445.doi: 10.1007/s00221-011-2793-x
92. Obeso, I., Wilkinson, L., Rodriguez-Oroz, M. C., Obeso, J. A., and Jahanshahi, M. (2013). Bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus has differential effects on reactive and proactive inhibition and conflict-induced slowing in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Brain Res. 226, 451-462.doi: 10.1007/s00221-013-3457-9
93. Oyama, G., Shimo, Y., Natori, S., Nakajima, M., Ishii, H., Arai, H., et al. (2011). Acute effects of bilateral subthalamic stimulation on decision-making in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 17, 189-193.doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.12.004
94. Parent, A., and Hazrati, L. N. (1995). Functional anatomy of the basal ganglia II. The place of subthalamic nucleus and external pallidum in basal ganglia circuitry. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 20, 128-154.doi: 10.1016/0165-0173(94)00008-D
95. Park, H. K., Kim, H. J., Kim, S. J., Kim, J. S., and Shin, H. W. (2011). From Jekyll to Hyde after limbic subthalamic nucleus infarction. Neurology 77, 82-84.doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318221ad25
96. Parsons, T. D., Rogers, S. A., Braaten, A. J., Woods, S. P., and Troster, A. I. (2006). Cognitive sequelae of subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease: a meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol. 5, 578-588.doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70475-6
97. Piallat, B., Polosan, M., Fraix, V., Goetz, L., David, O., Fenoy, A., et al. (2011). Subthalamic neuronal firing in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Parkinson disease. Ann. Neurol. 69, 793-802.doi: 10.1002/ana.22222
98. Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychol. Rev. 85, 59-108.doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.85.2.59
99. Ray, N. J., Brittain, J. S., Holland, P., Joundi, R. A., Stein, J. F., Aziz, T. Z., et al. (2012). The role of the subthalamic nucleus in response inhibition: evidence from local field potential recordings in the human subthalamic nucleus. Neuroimage 60, 271-278.doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.035
100. Ray, N. J., Jenkinson, N., Brittain, J., Holland, P., Joint, C., Nandi, D., et al. (2009). The role of the subthalamic nucleus in response inhibition: evidence from deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 47, 2828-2834.doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.011
101. Redgrave, P., Prescott, T. J., and Gurney, K. (1999). The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem? Neuroscience 89, 1009-1023.doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00319-4
102. Reynolds, B., Ortengren, A., Richards, J. B., and de Wit, H. (2006). Dimensions of impulsive behavior: personality and behavioral measures. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 20, 305-315.doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.024
103. Rieger, M., Gauggel, S., and Burmeister, K. (2003). Inhibition of ongoing responses following frontal, nonfrontal, and basal ganglia lesions. Neuropsychology 17, 272-282.doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.17.2.272
104. Robertson, C., Hazelwood, R., and Rawson, M. D. (1996). The effects of Parkinson's disease on the capacity to generate information randomly. Neuropsychologia 34, 1069-1078.doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(96)00031-0
105. Rodriguez-Oroz, M. C., Lopez-Azcarate, J., Garcia-Garcia, D., Alegre, M., Toledo, J., Valencia, M., et al. (2011). Involvement of the subthalamic nucleus in impulse control disorders associated with Parkinson's disease. Brain 134, 36-49.doi: 10.1093/brain/awq301
106. Rosa, M., Fumagalli, M., Giannicola, G., Marceglia, S., Lucchiari, C., Servello, D., et al. (2013). Pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease: subthalamic oscillations during economics decisions. Mov. Disord. 28, 1644-1652.doi: 10.1002/mds.25427
107. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Brammer, M. J., and Taylor, E. (2003). Right inferior pre-frontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. Neuroimage 20, 351-358.doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00275-1
108. Sano, H., Chiken, S., Hikida, T., Kobayashi, K., and Nambu, A. (2013). Signals through the striatopallidal indirect pathway stop movements by phasic excitation in the substantia nigra. J. Neurosci. 33, 7583-7594.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4932-12.2013
109. Schmidt, R., Leventhal, D. K., Mallet, N., Chen, F., and Berke, J. D. (2013). Canceling actions involves a race between basal ganglia pathways. Nat. Neurosci. 16, 1118-1124.doi: 10.1038/nn.3456
110. Schneider, W., and Chein, J. M. (2003). Controlled and automatic processing: behavior, theory, and biological mechanisms. Cogn. Sci. 27, 525-559.doi: 10.1016/S0364-0213(03)00011-9
111. Schroeder, U., Kuehler, A., Haslinger, B., Erhard, P., Fogel, W., Tronnier, V. M., et al. (2002). Subthalamic nucleus stimulation affects striato-anterior cingulate cortex circuit in a response conflict task: a PET study. Brain 125(Pt 9), 1995-2004.doi: 10.1093/brain/awf199
112. Schüpbach, W. M., Chastan, N., Welter, M. L., Houeto, J. L., Mesnage, V., Bonnet, A. M., et al. (2005). Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease: a 5 year follow up. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 76, 1640-1644.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2005.063206
113. Schüpbach, M., Gargiulo, M., Welter, M. L., Mallet, L., Béhar, C., Houeto, J. L., et al. (2006). Neurosurgery in Parkinson disease: a distressed mind in a repaired body? Neurology 66, 1811-1816.doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000234880.51322.16
114. Shiffrin, R. M., and Schneider, W. (1984). Automatic and controlled processing revisited. Psychol. Rev. 91, 269-276.doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.91.2.269
115. Smeding, H. M., Goudriaan, A. E., Foncke, E. M., Schuurman, P. R., Speelman, J. D., and Schmand, B. (2007). Pathological gambling after bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 78, 517-519.doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2006.102061
116. Smeding, H. M., Speelman, J. D., Koning-Haanstra, M., Schuurman, P. R., Nijssen, P., van Laar, T., et al. (2006). Neuropsychological effects of bilateral STN stimulation in Parkinson disease: a controlled study. Neurology 66, 1830-1836.doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000234881.77830.66
117. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of intererence in serial verbal reactions. J. Exp. Psychol. 18, 643-662.doi: 10.1037/h0054651
118. Sumner, P., Nachev, P., Morris, P., Peters, A. M., Jackson, S. R., Kennard, C., et al. (2007). Human medial frontal cortex mediates unconscious inhibition of voluntary action. Neuron 54, 697-711.doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.05.016
119. Surmeier, D. J. (2013). Neuroscience: to go or not to go. Nature 494, 178-179.doi: 10.1038/nature11856
120. Swann, A. C., Pazzaglia, P., Nicholls, A., Dougherty, D. M., and Moeller, F. G. (2003). Impulsivity and phase of illness in bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 73, 105-111.doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00328-2
121. Swann, N., Poizner, H., Houser, M., Gould, S., Greenhouse, I., Cai, W., et al. (2011). Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus alters the cortical profile of response inhibition in the Beta frequency band: a scalp EEG study in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurosci. 31, 5721-5729.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6135-10.2011
122. Thobois, S., Hotton, G. R., Pinto, S., Wilkinson, L., Limousin-Dowsey, P., Brooks, D. J., et al. (2007). STN stimulation alters pallidal-frontal coupling during response selection under competition. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 27, 1173-1184.doi: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600425
123. Torta, D. M., Vizzari, V., Castelli, L., Zibetti, M., Lanotte, M., Lopiano, L., et al. (2012). Impulsivities and Parkinson's disease: delay aversion is not worsened by deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus. PLoS ONE 7:e43261.doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043261
124. Trillet, M., Vighetto, A., Croisile, B., Charles, N., and Aimard, G. (1995). Hemiballismus with logorrhea and thymo-affective disinhibition caused by hematoma of the left subthalamic nucleus. Rev. Neurol. (Paris) 151, 416-419.
125. van den Wildenberg, W. P., van Boxtel, G. J., van der Molen, M. W., Bosch, D. A., Speelman, J. D., and Brunia, C. H. (2006). Stimulation of the subthalamic region facilitates the selection and inhibition of motor responses in Parkinson's disease. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 626-636.doi: 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.4.626
126. van Wouwe, N. C., Ridderinkhof, K. R., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Band, G. P. H., Abisogun, A., Elias, W. J., et al. (2011). Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus improves reward-based decision-learning in Parkinson's disease. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 5:30.doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2011.00030
127. Verbruggen, F., and Logan, G. D. (2009). Proactive adjustments of response strategies in the stop-signal paradigm. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 35, 835-854.doi: 10.1037/a0012726
128. Voon, V., Krack, P., Lang, A. E., Lozano, A. M., Dujardin, K., Schüpbach, M., et al. (2008). A multicentre study on suicide outcomes following subthalamic stimulation for Parkinson's disease. Brain 131, 2720-2728.doi: 10.1093/brain/awn214
129. Weaver, F. M., Follett, K., Stern, M., Hur, K., Harris, C., Marks, W. J. Jr., et al. (2009). Bilateral deep brain stimulation vs. best medical therapy for patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 301, 63-73.doi: 10.1001/jama.2008.929
130. Weaver, F. M., Follett, K. A., Stern, M., Luo, P., Harris, C. L., Hur, K., et al. (2012). Randomized trial of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease: thirty-six-month outcomes. Neurology 79, 55-65.doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013 e31825dcdc1
131. Weintraub, D., Duda, J. E., Carlson, K., Luo, P., Sagher, O., Stern, M., et al. (2013). Suicide ideation and behaviours after STN and GPi DBS surgery for Parkinson's disease: results from a randomised, controlled trial. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 84, 1113-1118.doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2012-304396
132. Whitmer, D., and White, C. N. (2012). Evidence of human subthalamic nucleus involvement in decision making. J. Neurosci. 32, 8753-8755.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1819-12.2012
133. Wiener, M., Magaro, C. M., and Matell, M. S. (2008). Accurate timing but increased impulsivity following excitotoxic lesions of the subthalamic nucleus. Neurosci. Lett. 440, 176-180.doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.05.071
134. Williams, A., Gill, S., Varma, T., Jenkinson, C., Quinn, N., Mitchell, R., et al. (2010). Deep brain stimulation plus best medical therapy versus best medical therapy alone for advanced Parkinson's disease (PD SURG trial): a randomised, open-label trial. Lancet Neurol. 9, 581-591.doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422 (10)70093-4
135. Williams, A. E., Arzola, G. M., Strutt, A. M., Simpson, R., Jankovic, J., and York, M. K. (2011). Cognitive outcome and reliable change indices two years following bilateral subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 17, 321-327.doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis. 2011.01.011
136. Witt, K., Daniels, C., Reiff, J., Krack, P., Volkmann, J., Pinsker, M. O., et al. (2008). Neuropsychological and psychiatric changes after deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: a randomised, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol. 7, 605-614.doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70114-5
137. Witt, K., Krack, P., and Deuschl, G. (2006). Change in artistic expression related to subthalamic stimulation. J. Neurol. 253, 955-956.doi: 10.1007/s00415-006-0127-x
138. Witt, K., Pulkowski, U., Herzog, J., Lorenz, D., Hamel, W., Deuschl, G., et al. (2004). Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus improves cognitive flexibility but impairs response inhibition in Parkinson disease. Arch. Neurol. 61, 697-700.doi: 10.1001/archneur.61.5.697
139. Wylie, S. A., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Elias, W. J., Frysinger, R. C., Bashore, T. R., Downs, K. E., et al. (2010). Subthalamic nucleus stimulation influences expression and suppression of impulsive behaviour in Parkinson's disease. Brain 133(Pt 12), 3611-3624.doi: 10.1093/brain/awq239
140. Yugeta, A., Terao, Y., Fukuda, H., Hikosaka, O., Yokochi, F., Okiyama, R., et al. (2010). Effects of STN stimulation on the initiation and inhibition of saccade in Parkinson disease. Neurology 74, 743-748.doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d 31e0b
141. Zaghloul, K. A., Weidemann, C. T., Lega, B. C., Jaggi, J. L., Baltuch, G. H., and Kahana, M. J. (2012). Neuronal activity in the human subthalamic nucleus encodes decision conflict during action selection. J. Neurosci. 32, 2453-2460.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5815-11.2012
142. Zandbelt, B. B., and Vink, M. (2010). On the role of the striatum in response inhibition. PLoS ONE 5:e13848.doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013848
143. Zavala, B., Brittain, J. S., Jenkinson, N., Ashkan, K., Foltynie, T., Limousin, P., et al. (2013). Subthalamic nucleus local field potential activity during the Eriksen flanker task reveals a novel role for theta phase during conflict monitoring. J. Neurosci. 33, 14758-14766.doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1036-13.2013