The morphodynamics of dinosaurs, other archosaurs, and their trackways: Holistic insights into relationships between feet, limbs, and the whole body

SEPM Special Publications

Volumn 88, Issue , 2007, Pages 27-51

  Lockley, Martin G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890262035     PISSN: 1060071X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.2110/pec.07.88.0027     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. AVANZINI, M., AND LOCKLEY, M.G., 2002, Middle Triassic Archosaur ontogeny and population structure: interpretations based on Isochirotherium delicatum fossil footprints (Southern Alps-Italy): Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 185, p. 391-402.
2. BAKKER, R.T., 1978, Dinosaur feeding behavior and the origin of flowering plants: Nature, v. 274, p. 661-663.
3. BAKKER, R.T., AND BIR, G., 2004, Dinosaur Crime Scene investigations: theropod behavior at Como Bluff, Wyoming and the evolution of birdness, in Currie, P.J., Koppelhus, E.B., Shugar, M.A., and Wright, J.L., eds., Feathered Dragons: Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana University Press, p. 301-342.
4. BENNETT, C., 1997, Terrestrial locomotion of pterosaurs: a reconstruction based on Pteraichnus trackways: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 17, p. 104-173.
5. BERTALANFFY, L., VON, 1955, General systems theory: Main Currents in Modern Thought, v. 11, p. 75-83.
6. BIRD, R.J., 2004, Chaos and Life; Complexity and Order in Evolution and Thought: New York, Columbia University Press, 336 p.
7. BOCKEMUHL, J., ed., 1977, Toward a Phenomenology of the Etheric World: Spring Valley, New York, Anthroposophic Press, 242 p.
8. BORTOFT, H., 1996, The Wholeness of Nature: New York, Lindisfarne Press, 407 p.
9. BRIGGS, J., AND PEAT, D., 1989, Turbulent Mirror; An Illustrated Guide to Chaos Theory and the Science Wholeness: New York, Harper, 222 p.
10. BUFFETAUT, E., SUTEETHORN, V., CUNY, G., TONG, H., LE LOEUFF, J., KHANSUBHA, S., AND JONGAUTCHARLYAKU, S., 2000, The earliest known sauropod dinosaur: Nature, v. 407, p. 72-74.
11. CARPENTER, K., ed., 2001, The Armored Dinosaurs: Bloomington, Indiana. Indiana University Press, 526 p.
12. CARRANO, M.T., AND O'CONNOR, P.M., 2005, Bird's eye view: Natural History, v. 114, p. 42-47.
13. CARROLL, R., 1988, Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution: New York , Freeman and Co., 698 p.
14. CARROLL, S.B., 2005, Endless Forms Most Beautiful; The New Science of Evo-Devo: New York, W.W. Norton and Co., 350 p.
15. CHATTERJEE, S., 1997, The Rise of Birds: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 312 p.
16. COLBERT, E.H., 1981, A primitive ornithischian dinosaur from the Kayenta Formation of Arizona: Museum of Northern Arizona, Bulletin, v. 53, p. 1-61.
17. COLBERT, E.H., 1989, The Triassic dinosaur Coelophysis: Museum of Northern Arizona, Bulletin, v. 5, p. 1-160.
18. CONWAY MORRIS, S., 1998, The Crucible of Creation: Oxford, U.K., Oxford University Press, 242 p.
19. CONWAY MORRIS, S., 2003, Life's Solutions: Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 464 p.
20. CZERKAS, S.A., 1987, A reevaluation of the plate arrangement on Stegosaurus stenops, in Olson, E.C., and Czerkas, S.M., eds., Dinosaur Past and Present: Seattle, University of Washington Press, p. 83-99.
21. DE BEER, G., 1958, Embryos and Ancestors: Oxford, U.K., Oxford University Press, 197 p.
22. DODSON, P., 1976, Quantitative aspects of relative growth and sexual dimorphism in Protoceratops: Journal of Paleontology, v. 50, p. 929-940.
23. DODSON, P., 1996, The Horned Dinosaurs; A Natural History: Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 346 p.
24. DODSON, P., BEHRENSMEYER, A.K., BAKKER, R.T., AND MCINTOSH, J., 1980, Taphonomy and paleoecology of the dinosaur beds of the Jurassic Morrison Formation: Paleobiology, v. 6, p. 208-232.
25. DODSON, P., AND FARLOW, J.O., 1997, The forelimb carriage of ceratopsid dinosaurs, in Wolberg, D.L., Stump, E., and Rosenberg, G., eds., Dinofest International: Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 393-398.
26. DONG, Z., ZHOU, S., AND ZHANG, Y., 1983, Dinosaurs from the Jurassic of Sichuan: Palaeontologica Sinica, v. 162, Series C, (23), p. 1-136, Beijing, Science Press.
27. ELLENBERGER, P., 1972, Contribution à la classification des pistes de vertebres du Trias; les types du Stormberg d'Afrique du Sud, le partie: Montpellier, Palaeo-vertebrata, Mémoire Extraordinaire, 152 p.
28. ERICKSON, G.M., AND TUMANOVA, T.A., 2000, Growth curve of Psittacosaurus mongoliensis Osborn (Ceratopsia: Psitacosauridae) inferred from long bone histology: Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society, v. 130, p. 551-566.
29. FARLOW, J.O., 1981, Estimates of dinosaur speeds from a new trackway site in Texas: Nature, v. 294, p. 747-748.
30. FARLOW, J.O., 1992, Sauropod tracks and trackmakers: integrating the ichnological and skeletal records: Zubia, v. 10, p. 89-138.
31. FASTOVSKY, D.E., 2002, Revealing the whole picture: reconstructing an ecosystem, in Scotchmoor, J.G., Breihaupt, B.H., Spreinger, D.A, and Fiorillo, A.R., eds., Dinosaurs; The Science Behind the Scenes: Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute, p. 53-60.
32. FASTOVSKY, D.E., AND WEISHAMPEL, D.B., 2005, The Evolution and Extinction of the Dinosaurs, Second Edition: Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 485 p.
33. GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, E., 1830, Principes de philosophie zoologique discutes en mars 1830 au sien de l'Académie Royale des Séances: Paris, Pichon et Didier, 226 p.
34. GIERLINSKI, G., 1994, Early Jurassic theropod tracks with the metatarsal impressions: Przeglad Geologiczny, v. 42, p. 280-284.
35. GOETHE, J.W., 1795, Erster Entwurf einer allgemeinen Einleitung in die vergleichende Anatomie, ausgehend von Osteologie, in Steiner, R., ed., 1982, Goethe. Naturwissenschaftliche Schriften: Dornach, R. Steiner, p. 239-275.
36. GOODWIN, B., 1994, How the Leopard Changed Its Spots: New York, Simon & Schuster, 252 p.
37. GOODWIN, M.B., AND HORNER, J.R., 2004, Cranial histology of pachycephalosaurs (Ornithischia: Marginocephalia) reveals transitory structures inconsistent with head-butting behavior: Paleobiology, v. 30, p. 253-267.
38. GOULD, S.J., 1977, Ontogeny and Phylogeny: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 501 p.
39. GOULD, S.J., 1989, Wonderful Life: New York, Norton, 347 p.
40. GOULD, S.J., 2002, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1433 p.
41. HAECKEL, E., 1866, Generelle Morphologie der Organismen: allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch begründet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz- Theorie: Berlin, George Reimer, 2 vols, 574 p, 462 p.
42. HAMMOND, D., 2003, The Science of Synthesis: Boulder, Colorado, University of Colorado Press, 312 p.
43. HENDERSON, D.M., 2002, Wide- and narrow-gauge sauropod trackways as a consequence of body mass distribution and requirements for stability: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 22 p. 64A.
44. HITCHCOCK, E., 1858, A Report on the Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley Especially Its Fossil Footmarks: Boston, W. White, [Reprinted by Arno Press, in the Natural Sciences in America Series.] 220 p.
45. HO, M-W., 1993, The Rainbow and the Worm: Singapore, London, World Scientific Press, 202 p.
46. HOLTZ, T.R., 1995, The arctometatarsalian pes, an unusual structure of metatarsus of Cretaceous Theropoda (Dinosauria, Saurischia): Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 14, p. 1100-1117.
47. HOPSON, J.A., 1977, Relative brain size and behavior in archosaurian reptiles: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, v. 8, p. 429-448.
48. HOPSON, J.A., 1979, Paleoneurology, in Gans, C., Northcutt, R.G., and Ulinski, P., eds., Biology of the Reptilia: London, Academic Press, v. 17, p. 39-146.
49. HORNER, J., AND GOODWIN, M., 2005, A new Triceratops cranial growth series: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 25, p. 71A-72A.
50. HUNT, A.P., 1991, The early diversification pattern of dinosaurs in the Late Triassic: Modern Geology, v. 16, p. 43-60.
51. JAEGER, E., 1948, Tracks and Trailcraft: New York, Macmillan, 381 p.
52. JERISON, H.J., 1969, Brain evolution and dinosaur brains: American Naturalist, v. 103, p. 575-588.
53. KAUFFMAN, S., 1995, At Home in the Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity: Oxford, U.K., Oxford University Press, 321 p.
54. KELLNER, A.W.A., 2003, Pterosaur phylogeny and comments on the evolutionary history of the group, in Buffetaut, E., and Mazin, J-M., eds., Evolution and Paleobiology of the Pterosaurs: Geological Society of London, Special Publication 217, p. 105-137.
55. KEMP, T.S., 1982, Mammal-Like Reptiles and the Origin of Mammals: London, Academic Press, 341 p.
56. KEMP, T.S., 1999, Fossils and Evolution: Oxford, U.K., Oxford University Press, 284 p.
57. KINGSBURY, B.F., 1924, The significance of the so called law of cephalocaudal differential growth: Anatomical Record, v. 27, p. 305-321.
58. KOESTLER, A., AND SMYTHIES, J.R., 1969, Beyond Reductionism; New Perspectives in the Life Sciences: New York, Macmillan, 438 p.
59. KURTEN, B., 1971, The Age of Mammals: New York, Columbia University Press, 250 p.
60. LENOIR, T., 1987, The eternal laws of form: morphotypes and the condition of existence in Goethe's biological thought, in Amrine, F., Zucker, F.J., and Wheeler, H., eds., Goethe and the Sciences; A Reappraisal: Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, v. 97, p. 17-28.
61. LILIENFIELD, R., 1978, The Rise of Systems Theory: New York, Wiley, 292 p.
62. LOCKLEY, M.G., 1991, Tracking Dinosaurs: Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 238 p.
63. LOCKLEY, M.G., 1999a, The Eternal Trail; A Tracker Looks at Evolution: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Perseus, 334 p.
64. LOCKLEY, M.G., 1999b, Einblicke in die Gestaltebiologie der Dinosaurier anhand ihrer Fahrtenspuren: Tycho de Brahe-Jahrbuch für Gotheanismus, p. 134-166.
65. LOCKLEY, M.G., 2000, Philosophical perspectives on theropod track morphology: blending qualities and quantities in the science of ichnology: Gaia, Revista de Geociencias, Museu Nacional de Historia Natural, Lisbon, Portugal, v. 15 (for 1998), p. 279-300.
66. LOCKLEY, M.G., 2001, Trackways-dinosaur locomotion, in Briggs, D.E.G., and Crowther, P., eds., Paleobiology; A Synthesis: Oxford, U.K., Blackwell, p. 412-416.
67. LOCKLEY, M. G., 2004, Beyond feet and footprints: what morphodynamics and heterochrony tell us about the relationships between feet, limbs and the whole body, in Buatois, L.A., and Mángano, G.M., eds., Abstract Book, Ichnia 2004. First International Congress on Ichnology, Trelew, Patagonia, April 19-23, p. 6-8.
68. LOCKLEY, M.G., 2005, Book review and commentary on The Great Rift Valleys of Pangea in eastern North America: Ichnos, v 12, p. 79-86.
69. LOCKLEY, M.G., DOS SANTOS, V.F., MEYER, C.A., AND HUNT, A.P., eds., 1994b, Aspects of Sauropod paleobiology: Gaia, Revista de Geociencias, Museu Nacional de Historia Natural, Lisbon, Portugal, v. 10, 279 p.
70. LOCKLEY, M.G., FARLOW, J.O., AND MEYER, C.A., 1994a, Brontopodus and Parabrontopodus Ichnogen. nov. and the significance of wide- and narrow-gauge sauropod trackways: Gaia, Revista de Geociencias, Museu Nacional de Historia Natural, Lisbon, Portugal, v. 10, p. 135-146.
71. LOCKLEY, M.G., AND HUNT, A.P., 1995a, Dinosaur Tracks and Other Fossil Footprints of the Western United States: New York, Columbia University Press, 338 p.
72. LOCKLEY, M.G., AND HUNT, A.P., 1995b, Ceratopsid tracks and associated ichnofauna from the Laramie Formation (Upper Cretaceous: Maastrichtian) of Colorado: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 15, p. 592-614.
73. LOCKLEY, M.G., HUNT, A.P., AND MEYER, C., 1994c, Vertebrate tracks and the ichnofacies concept: implications for paleoecology and palichnostratigraphy, in Donovan, S., ed., The Paleobiology of Trace Fossils: New York, Wiley & Sons, p. 241-268.
74. LOCKLEY, M.G., AND JACKSON, P., in press, Morphodynamic perspectives on convergence between the feet and limbs of sauropods and humans: two cases of hypermorphosis: Ichnos.
75. LOCKLEY, M.G., KUKIHARA, R., 2005, A morphodynamic analysis of the Triassic Theropod dinosaur Coelophysis: dimorphism provides a clue to intrinsic biological organization in saurischian dinosaurs, in Tracking Dinosaur Origins: The Triassic/Jurassic Terrestrial Transition: Dixie College, St. George, Utah (March 14-16, 2005, (abstract), p. 11-12.
76. LOCKLEY, M.G., KUKIHARA, R., AND MITCHELL, L., in press, Why Tyrannosaurus rex had puny arms: an integral morphodynamic solution to a simple puzzle in theropod paleobiology, in Carpenter, K., ed., 100 years of Tyrannosaurus rex: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
77. LOCKLEY, M.G., LOGUE, T.J., MORATALLA, J.J., HUNT, A.P., SCHULTZ, R.J., AND ROBINSON, J.W., 1995, The fossil trackway Pteraichnus is pterosaurian, not crocodilian: implications for the global distribution of pterosaurs tracks: Ichnos, v. 4, p. 7-20.
78. LOCKLEY, M.G., MATSUKAWA, M., AND LI, J., 2003, Crouching theropods in taxonomic jungles: ichnological and ichnotaxonomic investigations of footprints with metatarsal and ischial impressions: Ichnos, v. 10, p. 169-177.
79. LONG, J.A., AND MCNAMARA, K.J., 1995, Heterochrony in dinosaur evolution, in McNamara, K., ed., Evolutionary Change and Heterochrony: New York, Wiley, p. 151-168.
80. LONG, J.A., AND MCNAMARA, K.J., 1997, Heterochrony: the key to dinosaur evolution, in Wolberg, D., Stump, E., and Rosenberg, G.D., eds., Dinofest International: Philadelphia, The Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 113-123.
81. LOCKLEY, M.G., MEYER, C.A., AND DOS SANTOS, V.F., 1996, Megalosauripus, Megalosauropus and the concept of Megalosaur footprints, in Morales, M., ed., Continental Jurassic Symposium Volume: Flagstaff, Flagstaff Museum of Northern Arizona, p. 113-118.
82. LOCKLEY, M.G., MEYER, C.A., AND DOS SANTOS, V.F., 2000, Megalosauripus, and the problematic concept of Megalosaur footprints: Gaia, Revista de Geociencias, Museu Nacional de Historia Natural, Lisbon, Portugal, v. 15 (for 1998) p. 313-337.
83. LOCKLEY, M.G., AND WRIGHT, J.L., 2001, The trackways of large quadrupedal ornithopods from the Cretaceous: a review, in Carpenter, K., and Tanke, D., eds., Mesozoic Vertebrate Life; New Research Inspired by the Paleontology of Philip J. Currie: Bloomington Indiana, Indiana University Press, p. 428-442.
84. LOCKLEY, M.G., WRIGHT, J.L., LUCAS, S.G., AND HUNT, A.P., 2001, The late Triassic sauropod track record comes into focus. Old legacies and new paradigms: New Mexico Geological Society, 52nd Field Conference, Guidebook, p. 181-190.
85. LULL, R.S., 1953, Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey, Bulletin, v. 61, p. 1-336.
86. MANDELBROT, B.B., 1977, The Fractal Geometry of Nature: New York, W.H. Freeman, 468 p.
87. MATURANA, H.R., VARELA, F.J., AND URIBE, R., 1974, Autopoiesis: the organization of living systems, its characterization and model: Biosystems, v. 5, p. 187-196.
88. MCCREA, R., AND CURRIE, P.J., 1998, A preliminary report on dinosaur tracksites in the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) Gates Formation near Grande Cache, Alberta, in Lucas, S.G., Kirkland, J.I., and Estep, J.W., eds., Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Bulletin, v. 14, p. 155-162.
89. MCCREA, R., LOCKLEY, M.G., AND MEYER, C.A., 2001, Global distribution of purported ankylosaur track occurrences, in Carpenter, K., ed., The Armored Dinosaurs: Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana University Press, p. 413-454.
90. MCNAMARA, K., 1995, Sexual dimorphism: the role of heterochrony, in McNamara, K., ed., Evolutionary Change and Heterochrony: Chichester, U.K., Wiley, p. 55-89.
91. MCNAMARA, K., 1997, Shapes of Time; The Evolution of Growth and Development: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 342 p.
92. MITCHELL, M.M., 1992, Complexity; The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos: New York, Simon & Schuster, 380 p.
93. NANI, D., 1998, Symbolic dynamics in the evolution of vertebrates: some general considerations concerning the dynamics of form in vertebrates in the light of comparative anatomy and teratology: Magazine of Morphology, Bologna, v. 1, p. 75-105.
94. OWEN, R., 1859, Monograph on the fossil Reptilia of the Wealden and Purbeck Formations. Supplement II, Crocodilia (Streptospondylus etc.): Palaeontographical Society, Monograph 11, p. 20-44.
95. PADIAN, K., 2003, Pterosaur stance and gait and the interpretation of trackways: Ichnos, v. 10, p. 115-126.
96. PAUL, G.S., 1988, Predatory Dinosaurs of the World: New York, Simon & Schuster, 464 p.
97. PAUL, G.S., 2002, Dinosaurs of the Air: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 460 p.
98. PEABODY, F.E., 1948, Reptile and amphibian trackways from the Lower Triassic Moenkopi Formation of Arizona and Utah: University of California Publications, Bulletin of the Department of Geological Science, v. 27/8, p. 295-468.
99. POPPELBAUM, H., 1961, The New Zoology: Dornach, Philosphic- Anthroposophic Press, 192 p.
100. PORTMANN, A., 1964, New Paths in Biology: New York, Harper & Row, 169 p.
101. RAINFORTH, E., 2003, Revision and re-evaluation of the early Jurassic ichnogenus Otozoum: Paleontology, v. 46, p. 803-838.
102. RAUP, D.M., AND STANLEY, S.M., 1978, Principles of Paleontology: New York, W.H Freeman, 481 p.
103. RAWSON, P.F., 2001, Stratigraphic Procedure, in Briggs, D.E.G., and Crowther, P.R., eds., Paleobiology II: Oxford, U.K., Blackwell, p. 535-539.
104. RIEGNER, M., 1985, Horns, spots and stripes: form and pattern in mammals: Orion Nature Quarterly, v. 4, p. 22-35.
105. RIEGNER, M., 1993, Toward a holistic understanding of place: reading a landscape through its flora and fauna, in Seamon, D., ed., Dwelling, Seeing, and Designing: Toward a Phenomenological Ecology: Albany, State University of New York Press, p. 181-215.
106. RIEGNER, M., 1998, Horns, hooves, spots and stripes: form and pattern in mammals, in Seamon, D., and Zajonc, A., eds., Goethe's Way of Science; A Phenomenology of Nature: Albany, State University of New York Press, p. 177-212.
107. RIEGNER, M., AND WILKES, J., 1998, Flowforms and the language of water, in Seamon, D., and Zajonc, A., eds., Goethe's Way of Science; A Phenomenology of Nature: Albany, State University of New York Press. p. 233-252.
108. RETALLACK, G., 1997, Dinosaurs and dirt, in Wolberg, D., Stump, E., and Rosenberg, G.D., eds., Dinofest International: Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 345-359.
109. RUSSELL, E. S., 1916, Form and Function: London, Murray, 426 p.
110. RYAN, M.J., RUSSELL, A.P., EBERTH, D.A., CURRIE, P.J., 2001, The taphonomy of a Centrosaurus (Ornithischia: Ceratopsidae) bone bed from the Dinosaur Park Formation (Upper Campanian), Alberta, Canada, with comments on cranial ontogeny: Palaios, v. 16, p. 482-506.
111. SALGADO, L., AND BONAPARTE, J.F., 1991, Un nuevo sauropodo Dicraeosauridae, Amargasaurus cazaui gen. et sp. nov., de la Formacion La Amarga, Neocomiano de la provincia del Neuquen, Argentina: Ameghiniana, v. 28, p. 333-346.
112. SALTHE, S.N., 1985, Evolving Hierarchical Systems: New York, Columbia University Press, 343 p.
113. SAMPSON, S.D., RYAN M.J., AND TANKE, D.H., 1997, Craniofacial ontogeny in centrosaurine dinosaurs (Ornithischia: Ceratopsidae): taxonomic and behavioral implications: Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society, v. 121, p. 293-337.
114. SARJEANT, W.A.S., AND CURRIE, P.J., 2001, The "Great Extinction" that never happened: the demise of the dinosaurs considered: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 38, p. 239-247.
115. SCHAD, W., 1977, Man and Mammals; Towards a Biology of Form: New York, Waldorf Press, 309 p.
116. SCHAD, W., 1992, The heterochronic mode of evolution in the vertebrate classes and the Hominids: Ph.D. dissertation, University of Witten, Herdecke, 202 p.
117. SCHAD, W., 1993, Heterochronal patterns of evolution in the transitional stages of vertebrate classes: Acta Biotheoretica, v. 41, p. 383-389.
118. SEAMON, D., AND ZAJONC, A., eds., 1998, Goethe's Way of Science; A Phenomenology of Nature: Albany, State University of New York Press, 323 p.
119. SHUBIN, N.H., AND ALBERCH, P., 1986, A morphogenetic approach to the origin and basic organization of the vertebrate limb: Evolutionary Biology, v. 20, p. 319-387.
120. STEWART, I., 1989, Does God Play Dice; The Mathematics of Chaos: Oxford, U.K., Blackwell, 348 p.
121. SUCHANKE, A., 1983, Konvergente Evolution des Skelettes in verschiedenen Tiergruppen: Goetheanitische Naturwissenschaft, Zoologie, v. 3, p. 12-42.
122. TANKE, D.H., AND FARKE, A.A., 2003, Cranial abnormalities in horned dinosaurs: disease and normal biological processes-not combat wounds: Alberta Paleontological Society, 7th Annual Symposium, p. 78-81.
123. THULBORN, R.A., 1990, Dinosaur Tracks: London, Chapman & Hall, 410 p.
124. TRESISE, G., 1996, Sex in footprint bed: Geology Today, v. 12, p. 22-26.
125. UNWIN, D.M., 1997, Pterosaur tracks and the terrestrial ability of pterosaurs: Lethaia. v. 29, p. 373-386.
126. UNWIN, D.M., 2003, On the physiogeny and evolutionary history of pterosaurs, in Buffetaut, E., and Mazin, J-M., eds., Evolution and Paleobiology of the Pterosaurs: Geological Society of London, Special Publication 217, p. 139-190.
127. VERHULST, J., 2003, Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates: Ghent, New York, Adonis Press, 413 p.
128. WEISS, P.A., 1969, The living system: determinism stratified, in Koestler A., and Smythies, J.R., eds., Beyond Reductionism; New Perspectives in the Life Sciences: New York, Macmillan, p. 3-55.
129. WEISS, P.A., 1973, The Science of Life: the Living System-A System for Living: New York, Futura, 237 p.
130. WELLNHOFER, P., 1991, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Pterosaurs: New York, Crescent Books, 192 p.
131. WEYL, H., 1952, Symmetry: Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 168 p.
132. WIENER, N., 1948, Cybernetics; Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine: Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 194 p.
133. YE, Y., OUYANG, H., AND FU, Q.-M., 2001, New material of Mamenchisaurus hochuanensis from Zigong, Sichuan: Vertebrata PalAsiatica, v. 39, p. 266-271 [in Chinese with English abstract].
134. ZHOU, Z., WANG, X., ZHANG, F., AND XU, X., 2000, Important features of Caudipteryx: evidence from two nearly complete new specimens: Vertebrata PalAsiatica, v. 38, p. 241-254.