Substance Abuse: Inhalant-Related Disorders

Psychiatry: Third Edition

Volumn 1, Issue , 2008, Pages 1127-1148

  Sharp, Charles W ^a   Rosenberg, Neil ^a   Beauvais, Fred ^b   First, Michael B ^c,d,e  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE   (United States)

^b Department of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability   (United States)

^c Department of Neurology and the Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain   (United States)

^d NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

^e New York Presbyterian Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital   (United States)

Author keywords

Antisocial; Arrhythmia; Asphyxia; Ataxia; Belligerence; Butane; Carboxyhemoglobinemia; Chlorocarbons; Cognitive dysfunction; Delirium; Disorientation; Dizziness; Fluorocarbons; Foul breath; Gasoline; Headache; Hearing loss; Hexane; Inhalant disorders; Irritability; Limb dysmetria; Metabolic acidosis; Methemoglobinemia; Nitrous oxide; Organic nitrites; Peripheral neuropathy; Psychological dependence; Self destructive; Slurred speech; Suicides; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Volatile solvents

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889780340     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470515167.ch61     Document Type: Chapter

References (308)

1. Adelekan ML (1989) Self-reported drug use among secondary school students in the Nigerian state of Ogun. Bulletin on Narcotics 41, 109-116.
2. Al-Alousi LM (1989) Pathology of volatile substance abuse: A case report and a literature review. Medicine, Science and the Law 29, 189-208.
3. Al-Ghamdi SS, Raftery MJ, and Yaqoob MM (2003) Acute solvent exposure induced activation of cytochrome P4502E1 causes proximal tubular cell necrosis by oxidative stress. Toxicology in vitro 17, 335-341.
4. Allen N, Mendell JR, Billmaier DJ, et al. (1975) Toxic polyneuropathy due to methyl «-butyl ketone: An industrial outbreak. Archives of Neurology 32, 209-218.
5. Altenkirch H, Wagner HM, Stoltenburg-Didinger G, et al. (1982) Potentiation of hexacarbon-neurotoxicity by methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) and other substances: Clinical and experimental aspects. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology 4, 623-627.
6. Alvarez FJ, Queipo D, Del Rio MC, et al. (1989) Patterns of drug use by young people in the rural community of Spain. British Journal of Addiction 84, 647-652.
7. Antti-Poika M, Juntunen J, Matikainen E, et al. (1985) Occupational exposure to toluene: Neurotoxic effects with special emphasis on drinking habits. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 56, 31-40.
8. Arnold GL, Kirby RS, Langendoerfer S, et al. (1994) Toluene embryopathy: Clinical delineation and developmental follow-up. Pediatrics 93, 216-220.
9. Astrand I, Ovrum P, and Carlsson A (1975) Exposure to methylene chloride. I. Its concentration in alveolar air and blood during rest and exercise and its metabolism. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 1, 78-94.
10. Austin H, Delzell E, and Cole P (1988) Benzene and leukemia. A review of the literature and a risk assessment. American Journal of Epidemiology 127, 419-439.
11. Avella J, Wilson JC, and Lehrer M (2006) Fatal cardiac arrhythmia after repeated exposure to 1, 1-difluoroethane (DFE). American Journal Forensic Medicine and Pathology 27, 58-60.
12. Aydin K, Sencer S, Ogel K, et al. (2003) Single-voxel proton MR spectroscopy in toluene abuse. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 21, 777-785.
13. Backstrom B and Collins VP (1992) The effects of 2, 5-hexanedione on rods and cones of the retina of albino rats. Neurotoxicology 13, 199-202.
14. Baerg RD and Kimberg DV (1970) Centrilobular hepatic necrosis and acute renal failure in "solvent sniffers. " Annals of Internal Medicine 73, 713-720.
15. Balster RL (1998) Neural basis of inhalant abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 51, 207-214.
16. Barret L, Torch S, Leray CL, et al. (1992) Morphometric and biochemical studies in trigeminal nerve of rat after trichloroethylene or dichloroacety-lene oral administration. Neurotoxicology 13, 601-614.
17. Barrowcliff DF and Knell AJ (1979) Cerebral damage due to endogenous chronic carbon monoxide poisoning caused by exposure to methylene chloride. Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine 29, 12-14.
18. Bass M (1970) Sudden sniffing death. JAMA 212, 2075-2079.
19. Bass M (1984) Abuse of inhalation anesthetics (letter). JAMA 251, 604.
20. Batlle DC, Sabatini S, and Kurtzman NA (1988) On the mechanism of toluene-induced renal tubular acidosis. Nephron 49, 210-218.
21. Beauvais F, Jumper-Thurman P, Plested B, et al. (2002a) A survey of attitudes among drug user treatment providers toward the treatment of inhalant users. Substance Use and Misuse 37 (11), 1391-1410.
22. Beauvais F, Wayman JC, Thurman PJ, et al. (2002b) Inhalant abuse among American Indian, Mexican American, and non-Latino white adolescents. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 28, 171-187.
23. Beauvais F, Jumper-Thurman P, Helm H, et al. (2004) Surveillance of drug use among American Indian adolescents: Patterns over 25 years. Journal of Adolescent Health 34, (6), 493-500.
24. Beckman NJ, Zacny JP, and Walker DJ (2006) Within-subject comparison of the subjective and psychomotor effects of a gaseous anesthetic and two volatile anesthetics in healthy volunteers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 81, 89-95.
25. Belknap JK, Laursen SE, and Crabbe JC (1987) Ethanol and nitrous oxide produce withdrawal-induced convulsions by similar mechanisms in mice. Life Sciences 41, 2033-2040.
26. Bennett RH and Forman HR (1980) Hypokalemic periodic paralysis in chronic toluene exposure. Archives of Neurology 37, 673.
27. Berg EF (1971) Retrobulbar neuritis. Annals of Ophthalmology 3, 1351-1353.
28. Bergman NA (1991) Humphry Davy's contribution to the introduction of anesthesia: A new perspective. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 34, 534-541.
29. Biscaldi GP, Mingardi M, Pollini G, et al. (1981) Acute toluene poisoning. Electroneurophysiological and vestibular investigations. Toxicological European Research 3, 271-273.
30. Blain L, Lachapelle P, and Molotchnikoff S (1992) Evoked potentials are modified by long-term exposure to trichloroethylene. Neurotoxicology 13, 203-206.
31. Boon NA (1987) Solvent abuse and the heart (editorial) British Medical Journal 294, 722.
32. Boor JW and Hurtig HI (1977) Persistent cerebellar ataxia after exposure to toluene. Annals of Neurology 2, 440-442.
33. Bowen SE, Daniel J, and Balster RL (1999) Deaths associated with inhalant abuse in Virginia from 1987-1996. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 53, 239-245.
34. Brandes JC, Bufill JA, and Pisciotta AV (1989) Amyl nitrite-induced hemolytic anemia. Am J Med 86, 252-254.
35. Brett A (1997) Myeloneuropathy from whipped cream bulbs presenting as conversion disorder. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 31, 131-132.
36. Brilliant LC and Grillo A (1993) Successful resuscitation from cardiopulmonary arrest following deliberate inhalation of Freon refrigerant gas. Delaware Medical Journal 65, 375-378.
37. Broussard LA, Brustowicz T, Pittman T, et al. (1997) Two traffic fatalities related to the use of dichloroethane. Journal of Forensic Sciences 42, 1186-1187.
38. Bruhn P, Arlien-Soborg P, Gyldensted C, et al. (1981) Prognosis in chronic toxic encephalopathy. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 64, 259-272.
39. Butt J, Salandha J, McKilroy F, et al. (2004) Psychosocial correlates of inhalant abuse among indignenous Australian youth. International Journal of Psychology 39, 364-364.
40. Butzkueven H and King JO (2000) Nitrous oxide myelopathy in an abuser of whipped cream bulbs. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 7, 73-75.
41. Cagen SZ and Klaassen CD (1979) Hepatoxicity of carbon tetrachloride in developing rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 50, 347-354.
42. Cairney S, Maruff P, Burns CB, et al. (2004) Neurological and cognitive impairment associated with leaded gasoline encephalopathy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 73, 183-188.
43. Caldmeyer KS, Pascuzzi RM, Moran CC, et al. (1993) Tolune abuse causing reduced MR signal intensity in the brain. American Journal of Roentgenology 161, 1259-1261.
44. Caravati EM (1997) Acute toluene ingestion toxicity. Ann Emerg Med 30, 838-839.
45. Carlisle EJ, Donnelly SM, Vasuvattakul S, et al. (1991) Glue-sniffing and distal renal tubular acidosis: Sticking to the facts. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 1, 1019-1027.
46. Carra G, Scioli R, Monti MC, et al. (2006) Severity profiles of substance-abusing patients in Italian community addiction facilities: influence of psychiatric concurrent disorders. European Addiction Research 12, 96101.
47. Carroll E (1977) Notes on the epidemiology of inhalants. NIDA Research Monograph 15, 14-24.
48. Cartwright TR, Brown ED, and Brashear RE (1983) Pulmonary infiltrates following butane "fire-breathing. " Archives of Internal Medicine 143, 2007-2008.
49. Chang YL, Yang CC, Deng JF, et al. (1999) Diverse manifestations of oral methylene chloride poisoning: Report of 6 cases. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 37, 497-504.
50. Channer KS and Stanley S (1983) Persistent visual hallucination secondary to chronic solvent encephalopathy: Case report and review of the literature. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 46, 83-86.
51. Chenoweth MB (1977) Abuse of inhalation anesthetic drugs. NIDA Res Monogr 15, 102-111.
52. Clark MA, Jones JW, Robinson JJ, et al. (1985) Multiple deaths resulting from shipboard exposure to trichlorotrifluoroethane. Journal of Forensic Science 30, 1256-1259.
53. Coodin FJ, Dawes C, Dean GW, et al. (1980) Riposte to "Environmental lead and young children. " Canadian Medical Association Journal 123, 469-471.
54. Crofton KM and Zhao X (1993) Mid-frequency hearing loss in rats following inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene: Evidence from reflex modification audiometry. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 15, 413-423.
55. Cruz SL, Orta-Salazar G, Gauthereau MY, et al. (2003) Inhibition of cardiac sodium currents by toluene exposure. British Journal of Pharmacology 140, 653-660.
56. Cunningham SR, Dalzell GWN, McGirr P, et al. (1987) Myocardial infarction and primary ventricular fibrillation after glue sniffing. British Medical Journal 294, 739-740.
57. Currie B, Burrow J, Fisher D, et al. (1994) Petrol sniffer's encephalopathy. The Medical Journal of Australia 160, 800-801.
58. Davidman M and Schmitz P (1988) Renal tubular acidosis. A pathophysiologic approach. Hospital Practice (Office Edition) 23, 77-81, 84-88, 93-96.
59. Dell CA, Dell, DE and Hopkins C (2005) Resiliency and holistic inhalant abuse treatment. The Journal of Aboriginal Health 2, 4-12; also: http://www.ccsa.ca/NR/rdonlyres/B7B01B16-838F-437B-82C5-63760FE577EE/0/ccsa0113262006.pdf
60. Devathasan G, Low D, and Teoh PC (1984) Complications of chronic glue (toluene) abuse in adolescents. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 14, 39-43.
61. Dinwiddie SH, Zorumski CF, and Rubin EH (1987) Psychiatric correlates of chronic solvent abuse. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 48, 334-337.
62. Dinwiddie SH, Reich T, and Cloninger CR (1990) Solvent Use and psychiatric comorbidity. British Journal of Addiction 85, 1647-1656.
63. Dittmer DK, Jhamandas JH, and Johnson ES (1993) Glue-sniffing neuropathies. Canadian Family Physian 39, 1965-1971.
64. Donald JM, Hooper K, and Hopenhayn-Rich C (1991) Reproductive and developmental toxicity of toluene: A review. Environmental Health Perspectives 94, 237-244.
65. Doring G, Baumeister FA, Peters J, et al. (2002) Butane abuse associated encephalopathy. Klinische Pädiatrie 214, 295-298.
66. Dunkel VC, Rogers-Back AM, Lawlor TE, et al. (1989) Mutagenicity of some alkyl nitrites used as recreational drugs. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 14, 115-122.
67. Eastwell HD (1985) Elevated lead levels in petrol "sniffers. " The Medical Journal of Australia 143, 563-564.
68. th grade students is increasing. International Journal of Drug Addiction 28, 1621-1623.
69. Ehyai A and Freemon FR (1983) Progressive optic neuropathy and sensorineural hearing loss due to chronic glue sniffing. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 46, 349-351.
70. England A and Jones RM (1992) Inhaled anaesthetic agents: From halothane to the present day. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 48, 254-257.
71. Escobar A and Aruffo C (1980) Chronic thinner intoxication: Clinocopatho-logic report of a human case. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 43, 986-994.
72. Eskenazi B, Gaylord L, Bracken MB, et al. (1988) In utero exposure to organic solvents and human neurodevelopment. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 30, 492-501.
73. Evans AC and Raistrick D (1987) Patterns of use and related harm with toluene-based adhesives and butane gas. British Journal of Psychiatry 150, 769-776.
74. Evren C, Barut T, Saatcioglu O, et al. (2006) Axis I psychiatric comorbidity among adult inhalant dependents seeking treatment. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 38, 57-64.
75. Fechter LD, Liu Y, Herr DW, et al. (1998) Trichloroethylene ototoxicity: Evidence for a cochlear origin. Toxicological Sciences 42, 28-35.
76. Feldman RG, Niles C, Proctor SP, et al. (1992) Blink reflex measurement of effects of trichloroethylene exposure on the trigeminal nerve. Muscle and Nerve 15, 490-495.
77. Feldman RG, White RF, Currie JN, et al. (1985) Long-term follow-up after single toxic exposure to trichloroethylene. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 8, 119-126.
78. Field-Smith ME, Butland BK, Ramsey JD, et al. (2006) Trends in Death Associated with Abuse of Volatile Substances, 1971-2004. Report 19. St. George's Hospital Medical School, London.http://www.vsareport.org/
79. Filley CM, Heaton RK, and Rosenberg NL (1990) White matter dementia in chronic toluene abuse. Neurology 40, 532-534.
80. Filley CM (1999) Toxic encephalopathy. Clinical Neuropharmacology 22, 249-260.
81. Finch CK and Lobo BL (2005) Acute inhalant-induced neurotoxicity with delayed recovery. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 39, 169-172.
82. Fitzgerald RL, Fishel CE, and Bush LL (1993) Fatality due to recreational use of chlorodifluoromethane and chloropentafluoroethane. Journal of Forensic Sciences 38, 477-483.
83. Flippo TS and Holder WD Jr (1993) Neurologic degeneration associated with nitrous oxide anesthesia in patients with vitamin B12 deficiency Archives of Surgery 128, 1391-1395.
84. Forkert PG and Forkert L (1994) Trichloroethylene induces pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 72, 205-210.
85. Fornazzari L (1988) Clinical recognition and management of solvent abusers. Internal Medicine for the Specialist 9, 99-109.
86. Fornazzari L, Wilkinson DA, Kapur BM, et al. (1983) Cerebellar, cortical and functional impairment in toluene abusers. Acta Neurologica Scandi-navica 67, 319-329.
87. Frontali N, Amantini MC, Spagnolo A, et al. (1981) Experimental neurotoxicity and urinary metabolites of the C5-C7 aliphatic hydrocarbons used as glue solvents in shoe manufacture. Clinical Toxicology 18, 1357-1367.
88. Fuente A and McPherson B (2006) Organic solvents and hearing loss: The challenge for audiology. International Journal of Audiology 45, 367-381.
89. Fujinaga M and Baden JM (1994) Methionine prevents nitrous oxide-induced teratogenicity in rat embryos grown in culture. Anesthesiology 81, 184-189.
90. Gallassi R, Montagna P, Pazzaglia P, et al. (1980) Peripheral neuropathy due to gasoline sniffing-a case report. European Neurology 19, 419-421.
91. Galduroz JCF, Noto AR, Nappo SA, et al. (2005) Household survey on drug abuse in Brazil: Study involving the 107 major cities of the country-2001. Addictive Behaviors 30, 545-556.
92. Gamberale F, Annwall G, and Hultengren M (1975) Exposure to methylene chloride. II. Psychological functions. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 1, 95-103.
93. Garriott J (1992) Death among inhalant abusers. In A Volatile Research Agenda on Inhalant Abuse, Sharp CW, Spence R, and Beauvais F (eds). A NIDA Res Monogr. US Government Printing Office, Department of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 93-3480, Washington, DC, pp 181-192.
94. Gaulier JM, Tonnay V, Faict T, et al. (2003) Analytical aspects of volatile substance abuse (VSA). Journal of Forensic Sciences 48, 880-882.
95. rd, et al. (1992) Prechronic inhalation toxicity studies of isobutyl nitrite. Fundamentals of Applied Toxicology 19, 169-175.
96. Gerasimov MR, Schiffer W, Marstellar D, et al. (2002) Toluene inhalation produces regionally specific changes in extracellular dopamine. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 65, 243-251.
97. Gillman MA (1992) Nitrous oxide abuse in perspective. Clinical Neuropharmacology 15, 297-306.
98. Goldings AS and Stewart RM (1982) Organic lead encephalopathy: Behavioral change and movement disorder following gasoline inhalation. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 43, 70-72.
99. Gonzalez EG and Downey JA (1972) Polyneuropathy in a glue sniffer. Arch Phys Med Rehab 53, 333-337.
100. Goodheart RS and Dunne JW (1994) Petrol sniffer's encephalopathy. A study of 25 patients. Medical Journal of Australia 160, 178-181.
101. Goodwin TM (1988) Toluene abuse and renal tubular acidosis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 71, 715-718.
102. Goto I, Matsumura M, Inove N, et al. (1974) Toxic polyneuropathy due to glue sniffing. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 37, 848-853.
103. Grabski DA (1961) Toluene sniffing producing cerebellar degeneration. American Journal of Psychiatry 118, 461-462.
104. Graham DG, Anthony DC, and Boekelheide K (1982) In vitro and in vivo studies of the molecular pathogenesis of n-hexane neuropathy. Neurobe-havioral Toxicology and Teratology 4, 629-634.
105. Griffiths RR, Juliano LM, and Chausmer AL (2003) Caffeine pharmacology and clinical effects. In Principles of Addiction Medicine, Third Edition (pp. 193-224), Graham AW, Schultz TK, Mayo-Smith MF, et al. (eds). American Society of Addiction Medicine, Chevy Chase, Maryland.
106. Groppi A, Polettini A, Lunetta P, et al. (1994) A fatal case of trichlo-rofluoromethane (Freon 11) poisoning. Tissue distribution study by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Forensic Sciences 39, 871-876.
107. Gupta RK, Van Der Meulen J, and Johny KV (1991) Oliguric acute renal failure due to glue-sniffing. Case report. Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 25, 247-250.
108. Guss DA, Normann SA, and Manoguerra AS (1985) Clinically significant methemoglobinemia from inhalation of isobutyl nitrite. American Journal of Emergency Medicine 3, 46-47.
109. Hall DMB, Ramsey J, Schwartz MS, et al. (1986) Neuropathy in a petrol sniffer. Archives of Disease in Childhood 61, 900-901.
110. Hantson P, Vandenplas O, Dive A, et al. (1990) Trichloroethylene and cardiac toxicity: Report of two consecutive cases. Acta Clinica Belgica 45, 34-37.
111. Harris D and Mirza Z (2005) Butane encephalopathy Emergency Medical Journal 22, 676-677.
112. Haverkos HW, Kopstein AN, Wilson H, et al. (1994) Nitrite inhalants: History, epidemiology, and possible links to AIDS. Environmental Health Perspectives 102, 858-861.
113. Hedhili A, Charbagi K, Bousnina M, and Chakroun R (2005) 39 cases of inhalant abuse in Tunisia. Clinica Chimica Acta 355, S200-S200.
114. Hersh JH (1989) Toluene embryopathy: Two new cases. Journal of Medical Genetics 26, 333-337.
115. Hersh JH, Podruch PE, Rogers G, et al. (1985) Toluene embryopathy. Journal of Pediatrics 106, 922-927.
116. Herskowitz A, Ishii N, and Schaumburg H (1971) n-Hexane neuropathy: A syndrome occurring as a result of industrial exposure. New England Journal of Medicine 285, 82-85.
117. Hobara T, Okuda M, Gotoh M, et al. (2000) Estimation of the lethal toluene concentration from the accidental death of painting workers. Industrial Health 38, 228-231.
118. Hollo G and Varga M (1992) Toluene and visual loss (letter; comment). Neurology 42, 266. Comment on: Neurology 1991; 41, 282-285.
119. Hormes JT, Filley CM, and Rosenberg NL (1986) Neurologic sequelae of chronic solvent vapor abuse. Neurology 36, 698-702.
120. Horowitz BZ (1986) Carboxyhemoglobinemia caused by inhalation of methylene chloride. American Journal of Emergency Medicine 4, 48-51.
121. Howard M, Balster R, Cottler L, et al. (2007) Inhalant use among incarcerated adolescents in the United States: Prevalence, characteristics and correlates of use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence (In press)
122. Howard MO, Cottler LB, Compton WM, et al. (2001) Diagnostic concordance of DSM-III-R, DSM IV, and ICD-10 inhalant use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 61, 223-228.
123. Howard M and Jenson J (1999) Inhalant Use Among Antisocial Youth: Prevalence and Correlates. Addictive Behaviours 24, 59-74.
124. Hubbs AF, Castranova V, Ma JYC, et al. (1997) Acute lung injury induced by a commercial leather conditioner. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 143, 37-46.
125. Hutchens KS and Kung M (1985) Experimentation with chloroform. American Journal of Medicine 78, 715-718.
126. Ichihara G, Saito I, Kamijima M, et al. (1998) Urinary 2, 5-hexanedione increases with potentiation of neurotoxicity in chronic coexposure to n-hexane and methyl ethyl ketone. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 71, 100-104.
127. Ikeda M and Tsukagoshi H (1990) Encephalopathy due to toluene sniffing. Report of a case with magnetic resonance imaging. European Neurology 30, 347-349.
128. Jackowski C, Romhild W, Aebi B, et al. (2005) Autoerotic accident by inhalation of propane-butane gas mixture. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 26, 355-359.
129. Jacob B, Heller C, Daldrup T, et al. (1989) Fatal accidental enflurane intoxication. Journal of Forensic Sciences 34, 1408-1412.
130. Jacobs RF, Marmer DJ, Steele RW, et al. (1983) Cellular immunotoxicity of amyl nitrite. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 20, 421-449.
131. Jaspers RM, Muijser H, Lammers JH, et al. (1993) Mid-frequency hearing loss and reduction of acoustic startle responding in rats following trichlo-roethylene exposure. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 15, 407-412.
132. Jastak JT (1991) Nitrous oxide and its abuse. Journal of the American Dental Association 122, 48-52.
133. Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Benshoff N, and Olney JW (2000) Ketamine potentiates cerebralcortical damage induced by the common anaesthetic agent nitrous oxide in adult rats. Brish Journal of Pharmacology 130, 1692-1698.
134. Johnston L D, O'Malley P M, Bachman J G, et al. (2006) Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2005. Volume I: Secondary School Students (NIH Publication No. 06-5883). National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD, USA, 684 pp.
135. Jone CM and Wu AH (1988) An unusual case of toluene-induced metabolic acidosis. Clinical Chemistry 34, 2596-2599.
136. Jumper-Thurman P and Beauvais F (1992) Treatment of volatile solvent abusers. In A Volatile Research Agenda on Inhalant Abuse, Sharp CW, Spence R, and Beauvais F (eds). NIDA Res Monogr. US Government Printing Office, DHHS publication (ADM) 93-3480, Washington, DC, pp 203-213.
137. Jumper-Thurman P and Beauvais F (1997) Treatment of volatile solvent abusers. Substance Use and Misuse 32, 1883-1888.
138. Kamran S and Bakshi R (1998) MRI in chronic toluene abuse: Low signal in the cerebral cortex on T2-weighted images. Neuroradiology 40, 519-521.
139. Kaneko T, Koizumi T, Takezaki T, et al. (1992) Urinary calculi associated with solvent abuse. Journal of Urology 147, 1365-1366.
140. Kao KC, Tsai YH, Lin MC, et al. (2000) Hypokalemic muscular paralysis causing acute respiratory failure due to rhabdamyolysis with renal tubular acidosis in a chronic glue sniffer. Clinical Toxicology 38, 679-681.
141. Keane JR (1978) Toluene optic neuropathy. Annals of Neurology 4, 390.
142. Kerner K (1988) Current topics in inhalant abuse. NIDA Research Monograph 85, 8-29.
143. Kile SJ, Camilleri CC, Latchaw RE, et al. (2006) Bithalamic lesions of butane encephalopathy. Pediatric Neurology 35, 439-441.
144. Kimbrough RD, Mitchell FL, and Houk VN (1985) Trichloroethylene: An update. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 15, 369-383.
145. King GS, Smialek JE, and Troutman WG (1985a) Sudden death in adolescents resulting from the inhalation of typewriter correction fluid. JAMA 253, 1604-1606.
146. King PJL, Morris JGL, and Pollard JD (1985b) Glue sniffing neuropathy. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine15, 293-299.
147. Kira S, Ogata M, Ebara Y, et al. (1988) A case of thinner sniffing: Relationship between neuropsychological symptoms and urinary findings after inhalation of toluene and methanol. Industrial Health 26, 81-85.
148. Kiyokawa M, Mizota A, Takasoh M, et al. (1999) Pattern visual evoked cortical potentials in patients with toxic optic neuropathy caused by toluene abuse. Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology 43, 438-442.
149. Knight AT, Pawsey CG, Aroney RS, et al. (1991) Upholsterers' glue associated with myocarditis, hepatitis, acute renal failure, and lymphoma. Medical Journal of Australia 154, 360-362.
150. Knox JW and Nelson JR (1966) Permanent encephalopathy from toluene inhalation. New England Journal of Medicine 275, 1494-1496.
151. Kopstein M (2006) Potential uses of petrochemical products can result in significant benzene exposures: MSDSs must list benzene as an ingredient. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 3, 1-8.
152. Korman M, Matthews RW, and Lovitt R (1981) Neuropsychological effects of abuse of inhalants. Perceptual and Motor Skills 53, 547-553.
153. Korman M, Semler I, and Trimboli F (1980) A psychiatric emergency room study of 162 inhalant users. Addictive Behaviors 5, 143-147.
154. Kornfeld M, Moser AB, Moser HW, et al. (1994) Solvent vapor abuse leu-koencephalopathy. Comparison to adrenoleukodystrophy. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 53, 389-398.
155. Korobkin R, Asbury AK, Sumner AJ, et al. (1975) Glue-sniffing neuropathy. Archives of Neurology 32, 158-162.
156. Kozel N, Sloboda Z, and De La Rosa M (1995) Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective. NIDA Res Monogr. US Government Printing Office, NIH publication 95-3831, Washington, DC, p 148.
157. Krause JG and McCarthy WB (1989) Sudden death byinhalation of cyclopropane. Journal of Forensic Sciences 34, 1011-1012.
158. Krenz S, Zimmermann G, Kolly S, et al. (2003) Ether: A forgotten addiction. Addiction 98, 1167-1168.
159. Kringsholm B (1980) Sniffing-associated deaths in Denmark. Forensic Science Interntional 15, 215-225.
160. Kubic VL, Andres MW, Engel RR, et al. (1974) Metabolism of dihalom-ethanes to carbon monoxide. I. In vivo studies. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 2, 53-57.
161. Lash TL and Green LC (1993) Blink reflex measurement of effects of trichloroethylene exposure on the trigeminal nerve. Muscle and Nerve 16, 217-219.
162. Lataye R, Campo P, Pouyatos B, et al. (2003) Solvent ototoxicity in the rat and guinea pig. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 25, 39-50.
163. Laureno R (1993) Trichlo roethylene does not cause trigeminal neuropathy (letter). Muscle and Nerve 16, 217.
164. Lauwerys R, Bernard A, Viau C, et al. (1985) Kidney disorders and hema-totoxicity from organic solvent exposure. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 11 (Suppl 1), 83-90.
165. Lavoie FW, Dolan MC, Danzl DF, et al. (1987) Recurrent resuscitation and "no code" orders in a 27-year-old spray paint abuser (clinical conference). Annals of Emergency Medicine 16, 1266-1273.
166. Layzer RB (1978) Myeloneuropathy after prolonged exposure to nitrous oxide. Lancet 2, 1227-1230.
167. Lazar RB, Ho SU, Melen O, et al. (1983) Multifocal central nervous system damage caused by toluene abuse. Neurology 33, 1337-1340.
168. Levisohn PM, Kramer RE, and Rosenberg NL (1992) Neurophysiology of chronic cocaine and toluene abuse. Neurology 42 (Suppl 3), 434.
169. Levy AB (1986) Delirium induced by inhalation of typewriter correction fluid. Psychosomatics 27, 665-666.
170. Lewis DM and Lynch DW (1988) Toxicity of inhaled isobutyl nitrite in BALB/c mice: Systemic and immunotoxic studies. NIDA Research Monograph 83, 50-58.
171. Lindemann R (1991) Congenital renal tubular dysfunction associated with maternal sniffing of organic solvents. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 80, 882-884.
172. Lock EA (1989) Mechanism of nephrotoxic action due to organohalogen-ated compounds. Toxicology Letters 46, 93-106.
173. Lock EA and Reed CJ (2006) Trichloroethylene: Mechanisms of renal toxicity and renal cancer and relevance to risk assessment. Toxicological Sciences 91, 313-331.
174. Maas EF, Ashe J, Spiegel P, et al. (1991) Acquired pendular nystagmus in toluene addiction. Neurology 41, 282-285.
175. MacIver MB (2006) Abused inhalants target specific subtypes of inhibitory nerve terminals on CA1 neurons. Society for Neuroscience 32; 36. (Personal Communications.)
176. Mallov JS (1976) MBK neuropathy among spray painters. JAMA 235, 1455-1457.
177. Malm G and Lying-Tunell U (1980) Cerebellar dysfunction related to toluene sniffing. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 62, 188-190.
178. Manno M, Chirillo R, Daniotti G, et al. (1989) Carboxyhaemoglobin and fatal methylene chloride poisoning (letter). Lancet 2, 274.
179. Marjot R and McLeod AA (1989) Chronic nonneurological toxicity from volatile substance abuse. Human Toxicology 8, 301-306.
180. Martinez MA and Ballesteros S (2005) Investigation of fatalities due to acute gasoline poisoning. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 29, 643-651.
181. Martinez MA and Ballesteros S (2006) Suicidal inhalation of motorbike exhaust: Adding new data to the literature about the contribution of gasoline in the cause of death. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 30, 697-702.
182. Maruff P, Burns CB, Tyler P, et al. (1998) Neurological and cognitive abnormalities associated with chronic petrol sniffing. Brain 121, 1903-1917.
183. Mathew B, Kapp E, and Jones TR (1989a) Commercial butane abuse, a disturbing case. Brish Journal of Addiction 84, 563-564.
184. Mathew RJ, Wilson WH, and Tant SR (1989b) Regional cerebral blood flow changes associated with amyl nitrite inhalation. British Journal of Addiction 84, 293-299.
185. Maze M and Fujinaga M (2000) Recent advances in understanding the actions and toxicity of nitrous oxide. Anaesthesia 55, 311-314.
186. Mazze RI, Fujinaga M, and Baden JM (1988) Halothane prevents nitrous oxide teratogenicity in Sprague-Dawley rats; folinic acid does not. Teratology 38, 121-127.
187. McDonald MA, Turnquist PA, and MacIver MB (2003) Comparison of Halothane and Toluene Actions at GABA Synapses. Anesthesiology 97.
188. McLeod AA, Marjot R, Monaghan MJ, et al. (1987) Chronic cardiac toxicity after inhalation of 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane. British Medical Journal 294, 727-729.
189. Means ED, Prockop LD, and Hooper GS (1976) Pathology of lacquer thinner induced neuropathy. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science 6, 240-250.
190. Mendell JR, Saida K, Ganansia MF, et al. (1974) Toxic polyneuropathy produced by methyl n-butyl ketone. Science 185, 787-789.
191. Menkes JH (1976) Toxic polyneuropathy due to methyl n-butyl ketone (letter). Archives of Neurology 33, 309.
192. Mergler D and Beauvais B (1992) Olfactory threshold shift following controlled 7-hour exposure to toluene and/or xylene. Neurotoxicology 13, 211-215.
193. Metrick SA and Brenner RP (1982) Abnormal brain stem auditory evoked potentials in chronic paint sniffers. Annals of Neurology 12, 553-556.
194. Miller L, Pateras V, Friederici H, et al. (1985) Acute tubular necrosis after inhalation exposure to methylene chloride. Report of a case. Archives of Internal Medicine 145, 145-146.
195. Mizutani T, Oohashi N, and Naito H (1989) Myoglobinemia and renal failure in toluene poisoning: A case report. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 31, 448-450.
196. Morrow LA, Steinhauer SR, and Hodgson MJ (1992) Delay in P300 latency in patients with organic solvent exposure. Archives of Neurology 49, 315-320.
197. Murray FJ, Schwetz BA, McBride JG, et al. (1979) Toxicity of inhaled chloroform in pregnant mice and their offspring. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 50, 515-522.
198. Naqvi NH, Rudrauf D, Damasio H, et al. (2007) Damage to the Insula Disrupts Addiction to Cigarette Smoking. Science 315, 531-534.
199. Nelson NA, Robins TG, and Port FK (1990) Solvent nephrotoxicity in humans and experimental animals. American Journal of Nephrology 10, 10-20.
200. Niklasson M, Tham R, Larsby B, et al. (1993) Effects of toluene, styrene, trichloroethylene, and trichloroethane on the vestibulo-and opto-oculo motor system in rats. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 15, 327-334.
201. Nordin C, Rosenqvist M, and Hollstedt C (1988) Sniffing of ethyl chloride-an uncommon form of abuse with serious mental and neurological symptoms. International Journal of the Addictions 23, 623-627.
202. 12. British Journal of Anaesthesia 59, 3-13.
203. O'Callaghan C and Milner AD (1988) Aerosol treatment abuse. Archives of Disease of Childhood 63, 70.
204. Odkvist LM, Larsby B, Fredrickson JMF, et al. (1980) Vestibular and oculomotor disturbances caused by industrial solvents. Journal of Otolaryngology 9, 57-58.
205. Oetting ER and Webb J (1992) Psychosocial characteristics and their links with inhalants, a research agenda. In A Volatile Research Agenda on Inhalant Abuse, Sharp CW, Spence R, and Beauvais F (eds). NIDA Res Monogr. US Government Printing Office, DHHS publication 129 (ADM) 93-3475, Washington, DC, pp 59-98.
206. Oetting ER, Edwards RW, and Beauvais F (1988) Social and psychological factors underlying inhalant abuse. NIDA Research Monograph 85, 172-203.
207. Oh SJ and Kim JM (1976) Giant axonal swelling in "huffer's" neuropathy Archives of Neurology 33, 583-586.
208. Ong TK, Rustage KJ, Harrison KM, et al. (1988) Solvent abuse. An anaesthetic management problem. British Dental Journal 164, 150-151.
209. Osterloh J and Goldfield D (1984) Butyl nitrite transformation in vitro, chemical nitrosation reactions, and mutagenesis. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 8, 164-169.
210. Paraf F, Lewis J, and Jothy S (1993) Acute fatty liver of pregnancy after exposure to toluene. A case report. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 17, 163-165.
211. Pardys S and Brotman M (1974) Trichloroethylene and alcohol: A straight flush (letter). JAMA 229, 521-522.
212. Patel R and Benjamin J Jr (1986) Renal disease associated with toluene inhalation. Clinical Toxicology 24, 213-223.
213. Pearson MA, Hoyme HE, Seaver LH, et al. (1994) Toluene embryopathy: Delineation of the phenotype and comparison with fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatrics 93, 211-215.
214. Pedersen W, Clausen SE, and Lavik NJ (1989) Patterns of drug use and sensation-seeking among adolescents in Norway. Acta Psychiatrica Scan-dinavica 79, 386-390.
215. Pema PJ, Horak HA, and Wyatt RH (1998) Myelopathy caused by nitrous oxide toxicity. American Journal of Neuroradiology 19, 894-896.
216. Pfeiffer H, Al Khaddam M, Brinkmann B, et al. (2006) Sudden death after isobutane sniffing: a report of two forensic cases. International Journal of Legal Medicine 120, 168-173.
217. Poblano A, Ishiwara K, Ortega P, et al. (2000) Thinner abuse alters optokinetic nystagmus parameters. Archives of Medical Research 31, 182-185.
218. Poungvarin N (1991) Multifocal brain damage due to lacquer sniffing: The first case report of Thailand. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 74, 296-300.
219. Prockop LD and Karampelas D (1981) Encephalopathy secondary to abusive gasoline inhalation. Journal of the Florida Medical Association 68, 823-824.
220. Pryor GT (1995) Solvent-induced neurotoxicity: Effects and mechanisms. In Handbook of Toxicology, Chang LW and Dyer RS (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York.
221. Pryor GT, Dickinson J, Howd RA, et al. (1983) Transient cognitive deficits and high-frequency hearing loss in weanling rats exposed to toluene. Neu-robehavioral Toxicology and Teratology 5, 53-57.
222. Pryor GT, Howd RA, Uyeno ET, et al. (1985) Interactions between toluene and alcohol. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 23, 401-410.
223. Ratney RS, Wegman DH, and Elkins HB (1974) In vivo conversion of methylene chloride to carbon monoxide. Archives of Environmental Health 28, 223-226.
224. Rebert CS, Sorenson SS, Howd RA, et al. (1983) Toluene-induced hearing loss in rats evidenced by the brain stem auditory-evoked response. Neu-robehavioral Toxicology and Teratology 5, 59-62.
225. Rees DC, Knisely JS, Balster RL, et al. (1987) Pentobarbital-like discriminative stimulus properties of halothane, 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane, isoamyl nitrite, flurothyl and oxazepam in mice. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 241, 507-515.
226. Reese E and Kimbrough RD (1993) Acute toxicity of gasoline and some additives. Environmental Health Perspectives 101 (Suppl 6), 115-131.
227. Reidel S, Herbert T, and Byrd P (1995) Inhalant abuse: Confronting a growing challenge. In Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Treating Alcohol and Other Drug Abusers in Rural and Frontier Areas: 1994 Award for Excellence Papers. Technical Assistance Publication 17. DHHS Pub. No. (SMA) 95-3054. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, pp 1-12.
228. Remington G and Hoffman BF (1984) Gas sniffing as a form of substance abuse. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 29, 31-35.
229. Reyes de la, Rocha S, Brown MA, et al. (1987) Pulmonary function abnormalities in intentional spray paint inhalation. Chest 92, 100-104.
230. Riegel AC, Ali SF, and French ED (2003) Toluene-induced locomotor activity is blocked by 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nucleus accumbens and the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1440-1447.
231. Roberts MJD, McIvor RA, and Adgey AAJ (1990) Asystole following butane gas inhalation. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 44, 294.
232. Robinson RO (1978) Tetraethyl lead poisoning from gasoline sniffing. JAMA 240, 1373-1374.
233. Rohrig TP (1997) Sudden death due to butane inhalation. American Journal for Medical Pathology 18, 299-302.
234. Rosenberg NL, Grigsby J, Dreisbach J, et al. (2002) Neuropsychologic impairment and MRI abnormalities associated with chronic solvent abuse. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 40 (1), 1-14.
235. Rosenberg NL, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Davis KA, et al. (1988a) Toluene abuse causes diffuse central nervous system white matter changes.Annals of Neurology 23, 611-614.
236. Rosenberg NL, Spitz MC, Filley CM, et al. (1988b) Central nervous system effects of chronic toluene abuse-clinical, brain stem evoked response and magnetic resonance imaging studies. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 10, 489-495.
237. Rosoff MH and Cohen MV (1986) Profound bradycardia after amyl nitrite in patients with a tendency to vasovagal episodes. British Heart Journal 55, 97-100.
238. Ruijten MW, Verberk MM, and Salle HJ (1991) Nerve function in workers with long-term exposure to trichloroethene. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 48, 87-92.
239. Rybak LP (1992) Hearing: The effects of chemicals. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery 106, 677-686.
240. Saida K, Mendell JR, and Weiss HS (1976) Peripheral nerve changes induced by methyl n-butyl ketone and potentiated by methyl ethyl ketone. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 35, 207-225.
241. Sakai JT, Hall SK, Mikulich-Gilbertson SK, et al. (2004) Inhalant use, abuse, and dependence among adolescent patients: Commonly comorbid problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43, 1080-1088.
242. Sakai JT, Mikulich-Gilbertson SK, and Crowley TJ (2006) Adolescent inhalant use among male patients in treatment for substance abuse and behavior problems: Two year outcomes. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 32, 29-40.
243. Sasa M, Igarashi S, Miyazaki T, et al. (1978) Equilibrium disorders with diffuse brain atrophy in long-term toluene sniffing. Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology 221, 163-169.
244. Scerri GV, Regan PJ, Ratcliffe RJ, et al. (1992) Burns following cigarette lighter fluid abuse. Burns 18, 329-331.
245. Schaumburg HH and Spencer PS (1976) Degeneration in central and peripheral nervous systems produced by pure n-hexane: An experimental study. Brain 99, 183-192.
246. Schaumburg HH and Spencer PS (1987) Recognizing neurotoxic disease. Neurology 37, 276-278.
247. Schiffer WK, Lee DE, Alexoff DL, et al. (2006) Metabolic correlates of toluene abuse: Decline and recovery of function in adolescent animals. Psychopharmacology 186, 159-167.
248. Schikler KN, Lane EE, Seitz K, et al. (1984) Solvent abuse associated pulmonary abnormalities. Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse 3, 75-81.
249. Schikler KN, Seitz K, Rice JF, et al. (1982) Solvent abuse associated cortical atrophy. Journal of Adolescent Health Care 3, 37-39.
250. Schwartz RH and Calihan M (1984) Nitrous oxide: A potentially lethal euphoriant inhalant. American Family Physician 30, 171-172.
251. rd, Mayer KH, Horsburgh CR Jr, et al.(1992) The relation between nitrite inhalants, unprotected receptive anal intercourse, and the risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection. American Journal of Epidemiology 135, 1-11.
252. Seshia SS, Rajani KR, Boeckx RL, et al. (1978) The neurological manifestations of chronic inhalation of leaded gasoline. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 20, 323-334.
253. Sharp CW, Spence R, and Beauvais F (eds) (1992) A Volatile Research Agenda on Inhalant Abuse. NIDA Res Monogr. US Government Printing Office, DHHS publication 129 (ADM) 93-3475, Washington, DC, pp 1-10.
254. Sherwood RL, O'Shea W, Thomas PT, et al. (1987) Effects of inhalation of ethylene dichloride on pulmonary defenses of mice and rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 91, 491-496.
255. Short BG, Burnett VL, Cox MG, et al. (1987) Site-specific renal cytotoxicity and cell proliferation in male rats exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons. Laboratory Investigation 57, 564-577.
256. Siegel E and Wason S (1990) Sudden death caused by inhalation of butane and propane (letter). New England Journal of Medicine 323, 1638.
257. Smith M, Stair T, and Rolnick MA (1980) Butyl nitrite and a suicide attempt. Annal of Internal Medicine 5, 719-720.
258. Soderberg LSF and Barnett JB (1995) Inhalation exposure to iso butyl nitrite inhibits macrophage tumoricidal activity and modulates inducible nitric oxide. J ournal of Leukocyte Biology 57, 135-140.
259. Soderberg LSF, Ponnappan U, Roy A, et al. (2004) Production of macrophage IL-1b was inhibited both at the levels of transcription and maturation by caspase-1 following inhalation exposure to isobutyl nitrite. Toxicology Letters 152, 47-56.
260. Spencer JD, Raasch FO, and Trefny FA (1976) Halothane abuse in hospital personnel. JAMA 235, 1034-1035.
261. Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH, Raleigh RL, et al. (1975) Nervous system degeneration produced by the industrial solvent methyl n-butyl ketone. Archives of Neurology 32, 219-222.
262. Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH, Sabri MI, et al. (1980) The enlarging view of hexacarbon neurotoxicity. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 7, 279-357.
263. Stewart A and Witts LJN (1993) Chronic carbon tetrachloride intoxication (1944 classical article). British Journal of Industrial Medicine 50, 8-18.
264. Stewart RD and Fisher TN (1972) Carboxyhemoglobin elevation after exposure to dichloromethane. Science 176, 295-296.
265. Stewart RD, Fisher TN, Hosko MJ. et al. (1972) Experimental human exposure to methylene chloride. Archives of Environmental Health 25, 342-348.
266. Stewart RD, Hake CL, and Peterson JE (1974) "Degreasers' flush, " dermal response to trichloroethylene and ethanol. Archives of Environmental Health 29, 1-5.
267. Streicher HZ, Gabow PA, Moss AH, et al. (1981) Syndromes of toluene sniffing in adults. Annals of Internal Medicine 94, 758-762.
268. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2001) National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Population Estimates 2000. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
269. Sugie H, Sasaki C, Hashimoto C, et al. (2004) Three cases of sudden death due to butane or propane gas inhalation: analysis of tissues for gas components. Forensic Science Interntional 143, 211-214.
270. Suruda AJ and McGlothlin JD (1990) Fatal abuse of nitrous oxide in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Medicine 32, 682-684.
271. Takebayashi K, Sekine Y, Takei N, et al. (2004) Metabolite alterations in basal ganglia associated with psychiatric symptoms of abstinent toluene users: A proton MRS study. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1019-1026.
272. Takeuchi Y (1988) Visual disorders due to organic solvent poisoning. Japanese Journal of Industrial Health 30, 236-247.
273. Takeuchi Y (1993) n-Hexane polyneuropathy in Japan: A review of n-hexane poisoning and its preventive measures. Environmental Research 62, 76-80.
274. Takeuchi Y, Hisanaga N, Ono Y, et al. (1981) Cerebellar dysfunction caused by sniffing of toluene-containing thinner. Industrial Health 19, 163-169.
275. Taylor GJ and Harris W (1970) Cardiac toxicity of aerosol propellants. JAMA 214, 81-85.
276. Tenenbein M (1997) Leaded gasoline abuse: The role of tetraethyllead. Human and Experimental Toxicology 16, 217-222.
277. Tenenbein M (2005) Fetal and neonatal effects of inhalant Abuse. Presented at the Inhalant Abuse Among Children and Adolescents: Consultation on Building an International Research Agenda (Nov. 7-9). Rockville. MD, USA.
278. Tenenbein M, deGroot W, and Rajani KR (1984) Peripheral neuropathy following intentional inhalation of naphtha fumes. Canadian Medical Association Journal 131, 1077-1079.
279. Thompson PJ, Dhillon P, and Cole P (1983) Addiction to aerosol treatment: The asthmatic alternative to glue sniffing. British Medical Journal 287, 1515-1516.
280. Toohey JI (2006) Vitamin B-12 and methionine synthesis: A critical review. Is nature's most beautiful cofactor misunderstood? Biofactors 26, 45-57.
281. Towfighi J, Gonatas NK, Pleasure D, et al. (1976) Glue sniffer's neuropathy. Neurology 26, 238-243.
282. Unger E, Alexander A, Fritz T, et al. (1994) Toluene abuse: Physical basis for hypointensity of the basal ganglia on T2-weighted MR images. Radiology 193, 473-476.
283. Valpey R, Sumi SM, Copass MK, et al. (1978) Acute and chronic progressive encephalopathy due to gasoline sniffing. Neurology 28, 507-510.
284. Vishnubhakat SM and Beresford HR (1991) Reversible myeloneuropathy of nitrous oxide abuse: Serial electrophysiological studies. Muscle and Nerve 14, 22-26.
285. Wagner SA, Clark MA, Wesche DL, et al. (1992) Asphyxial deaths from the recreational use of nitrous oxide. Journal of Forensic Sciences 37, 1008-1015.
286. Wason S, Detsky AS, Platt OS, et al. (1980) Isobutyl nitrite toxicity by ingestion. Annals of Interanl Medicine 92, 637-638.
287. Wason S, Gibler WB, and Hassan M (1986) Ventricular tachycardia associated with non-Freon aerosol propellants. JAMA 256, 78-80.
288. Waters MF, Kang GA, Mazziotta JC, DeGiorgio CM (2005) Nitrous oxide inhalation as a cause of cervical myelopathy. Acta Neurologica Scandi-navica 112, 270-272.
289. Wernisch M, Paya K, and Palasser A (1991) Cardiovascular arrest after inhalation of leather glue. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 141, 71-74.
290. Wilkins-Haug L (1997) Teratogen update: Toluene. Teratology 55, 145-51.
291. Wilkins-Haug L and Gabow PA (1991) Toluene abuse during pregnancy: Obstetric complications and perinatal outcomes. Obstetrics and Gynecology 77, 504-509.
292. Will AM and McLaren EH (1981) Reversible renal damage due to glue sniffing. British Medical Journal 283, 525-526.
293. Winneke G (1981) The neurotoxicity of dichloromethane. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology 3, 391-395.
294. Wood RW and Cox C (1981) Acute oral toxicity of butyl nitrite. Journal of Applied Toxicology 1, 30-31.
295. Wright MF and Strobl DJ (1984) 1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane cardiac toxicity: Report of a case. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 84, 285-288.
296. Wu LT and Howard MO. (2006a) Psychiatric disorders in inhalant users: Results from The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions Drug and Alcohol Dependence Nov 25; [Epub]
297. Wu LT and Howard MO (2007) Is inhalant use a risk factor for heroin and injection drug use among adolescents in the United States? Addictive Behaviors 32, 265-281.
298. Wu L, Pilowski D, and Schlenger W (2004) Inhalant abuse and dependence among adolescents in the United States. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43, 1206-1214.
299. Wu L and Ringwalt (2006) Inhalant use disorders among adults in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 85, 1-11.
300. Xiong L, Matthes JD, Li J, et al. (1993) MR imaging of spray heads: Toluene abuse via aerosol paint inhalation. American Journal of Neuroradiology 14, 1195-1199.
301. Xiong ZG, Avella J, Wetli RV (2004) Sudden death caused by 1, 1-difluoroethane inhalation. Journal of Forensic Sciences 49, 627-629.
302. Yamamoto M, Ishiwata H, Yamada T, et al. (1987) Studies in the guinea-pig stomach on the formation of N-nitrosomethylurea, from methylurea and sodium nitrite, and its disappearance. Food and Chemical Toxicology 25, 663-668.
303. Yamamoto S, Mori NYH, Miyata M, et al. (1992) Neurogenic bladder caused by toluene abuse. Acta Urologica Japonica 38, 459-462.
304. Yamanouchi N, Okada S, Kodama K, et al. (1995) White matter changes caused by chronic solvent abuse. American Journal of Neuroradiology 16, 1643-1649.
305. Yamanouchi N, Okada S, Kodama K, et al. (1997) Effects of MRI abnormalities on WAIS-R performance in solvent abusers. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 96, 34-39.
306. Yamashita M, Matsuki A, and Oyama T (1984) Illicit use of modern volatile anaesthetics. Canadian Anaesthetists Society Journal 31, 76-79.
307. Yardley-Jones A, Anderson D, and Parke DV (1991) The toxicity of benzene and its metabolism and molecular pathology in human risk assessment. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 48, 437-444.
308. Zakhari S and Salem H (1991) Cardiac toxicology of solvents. In Principles of Cardiac Toxicology, Baskin SI (ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 465W-501.