The evolution of transnational environmental law: Four cases in historical perspective

Transnational Environmental Law

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 183-198

  Sand, Peter H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

Aircraft Noise; Marine Protected Areas; Ocean Dumping; Public Participation; River Pollution; Transnational Law

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889024349     PISSN: 20471025     EISSN: 20471033     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S2047102511000045     Document Type: Review

References (186)

1. P. Jessup, Transnational Law (Yale University Press, 1956), at p. 2.
2. H.J. Steiner & D.F. Vagts, Transnational Legal Problems (1st edn, Foundation Press, 1968), p. xi.
3. H.J. Steiner, 'Constructing and Developing Transnational Law: The Contribution of Detlev Vagts', in P.H.E. Bekker et al. (eds.), Making Transnational Law Work in the Global Economy: Essays in Honour of Detlev Vagts (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 10-16, at 11.
4. D. Kalderimis, 'Is Transnational Law Eclipsing International Law?', ibid., pp. 93-107, at 101.
5. See T.N. Hale & D. Held (eds.), Handbook of Transnational Governance: Institutions and Innovations (Polity Press, 2011)
6. see also A.M. Slaughter & T.N. Hale, 'Transgovernmental Networks and Multilevel Governance', in H. Enderlein et al. (eds.), Handbook on Multi-Level Governance (Edward Elgar, 2010), pp. 358-69.
7. G. Walker, Internationales Privatrecht (Österreichische Staatsdruckerei, 1934), p. 13.
8. See E. Gaillard, 'Transnational Law: A Legal System or a Method of Decision Making?', in K.P. Berger (ed.), The Practice of Transnational Law (Kluwer Law International, 2001), pp. 53-65.
9. See Editorial, 'Developments in the Law: International Environmental Law' (1991) 104 Harvard Law Review, pp. 1484-639, at 1489.
10. Declaration on the Human Environment, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm (Sweden), 5-16 June 1972, UN Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 vol. I (1973), p. 5 (German translation in (1972) 20 Vereinte Nationen, p. 109).
11. See, e.g., U. Beyerlin, Umweltvölkerrecht (Beck Verlag, 2000)
12. A. Epiney & M. Scheyli, Umweltvölkerrecht (Stämpfli Verlag, 2000)
13. P.T. Stoll & K. Schillhorn, 'Das völkerrechtliche Instrumentarium und transnationale Anstösse im Recht der natürlichen Lebenswelt' (1998) 20 Natur und Recht, pp. 625-32.
14. See, e.g., C.P.R. Romano, The Peaceful Settlement of International Environmental Disputes: A Pragmatic Approach (Kluwer Law International, 2000), at p. 14.
15. Notable exceptions are S.C. McCaffrey, Private Remedies for Transfrontier Environmental Disturbances (IUCN, 1975)
16. K. Siehr, 'Grenzüberschreitender Umweltschutz: europäische Erfahrungen mit einem weltweiten Problem' (1981) 45 Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationals Privatrecht, pp. 377-98.
17. S.C. McCaffrey, 'Liability for Transfrontier Environmental Harm: The Relationship between Public and Private International Law', in C. von Bar (ed.), Internationales Umwelthaftungsrecht, vol. I (Carl Heymanns Verlag, 1995), pp. 81-104, at 83.
18. K. Neumeyer, Internationales Verwaltungsrecht, vol. 2 (Schweitzer Verlag, 1922).
19. K. Neumeyer, Internationales Verwaltungsrecht, vol. 1 (Schweitzer Verlag, 1910)
20. see Walker, n. 6 above, at p. 15.
21. K. Neumeyer, 'Le droit administratif international' (1911) 18 Revue Générale de Droit International Public, p. 492-99.
22. K. Neumeyer, Internationales Verwaltungsrecht, vol. 4 (Verlag für Recht und Gesellschaft, 1936).
23. See K. Vogel, 'Karl Neumeyer: In den Tod getrieben', in P. Landau & H. Nehlsen (eds.), Grosse jüdische Gelehrte an der Münchener Juristischen Fakultät (Aktiv Verlag, 2001), pp. 97-111.
24. See B. Kingsbury et al., 'The Emergence of Global Administrative Law' (2005) 68 Law and Contemporary Problems, pp. 15-61.
25. W. Durner, 'Internationales Umweltverwaltungsrecht', and M. Rossi, 'Europäisiertes internationals Umweltverwaltungsrecht', in C. Möllers et al. (eds.), Internationales Verwaltungsrecht: Eine Analyse anhand von Referenzgebieten (Mohr Siebeck Verlag, 2007), pp. 121-64 and 165-80.
26. Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada) (1941) 3
27. UN Reports on International Arbitration Awards 1911, (1941) 35 American Journal of International Law, p. 684.
28. British South Africa Co. v. Companhia de Mocambique [1893] AC 602.
29. See J.E. Read, 'The Trail Smelter Dispute' (1963) 1 Canadian Yearbook of International Law, pp. 213-39, at 223.
30. See J.J. Knox, 'The Flawed Trail Smelter Procedure: The Wrong Tribunal, the Wrong Parties, and the Wrong Law', in R.M. Bratspies & R.A. Miller (eds.), Transboundary Harm in International Law: Lessons from the Trail Smelter Arbitration (Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 66-78.
31. For a recent follow up case decided in a US federal court, see Pakootas v. Teck COMINCOMetal Ltd., US Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit (3 July 2006), 452 F. 3rd 1066
32. M. van de Kerkhof, 'The Trail Smelter Case Re-examined: Examining the Development of National Procedural Mechanisms to Resolve a Trail Smelter Type Dispute' (2011) 27 Merkourios: Utrecht Journal of International and European Law, pp. 68-83.
33. Oberlandesgericht Saarbrücken, 22 Oct. 1957, (1958) 11 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift, p. 752
34. (English summary in P.H. Sand, Transnational Environmental Law: Lessons in Global Change (Kluwer Law International, 1999), at pp. 89-90).
35. Annex 8, Art. 8, Franco-German Treaty for the Settlement of the Question of the Saar, Luxemburg, 27 Oct. 1956, 1053 UNTS 3
36. the Implementation Protocol, Paris (France), 20 Dec. 1961, 1053 UNTS 511.
37. G. Winter (ed.), Multilevel Governance of Global Environmental Change: Perspectives from Science, Sociology and the Law (Cambridge University Press, 2006)
38. S. Wälti, 'Multi-Level Environmental Governance', in Enderlein, n. 5 above, pp. 411-22.
39. Verwaltungsgerichtshof 30 May 1969, (1969) 24 Erkenntnisse und Beschlüsse des Verwaltungsgerichtshofs, p. 264 (English summary in Sand, n. 25 above, at pp. 90-2).
40. Verfassungsgerichtshof 10 Oct. 1969, (1969) 34 Erkenntnisse und Beschlüsse des Verfassungsgerichtshofs 681.
41. Kaiserlicher und Königlicher Verwaltungsgerichtshof 1 March 1913, (1913) 7 Niemeyer's Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht, p. 56
42. (English translation in (1913) 7 American Journal of International Law, p. 653).
43. C.H. Schreuer, 'Zur verwaltungs- und völkerrechtlichen Problematik des Salzburger Flughafenfalles' (1971) 26 Oesterreichische Juristenzeitung, pp. 542-45, at 544 (völkerrechtsfeindlich).
44. See, e.g. Verwaltungsgerichtshof 29 Jan. 1991 (English summary by G. Loibl in (1993) 44 Austrian Journal of Public and International Law, p. 243) (denying standing to a foreign environmental agency in hearings for hydropower development on the Austro-Slovenian border).
45. See the OECD recommendations at n. 98 below.
46. Council of Europe, Madrid (Spain), 21 May 1980, 1272 UNTS 61
47. see U. Beyerlin, 'Dezentrale grenzüberschreitende Zusammenarbeit als transnationales Rechtsphänomen' (1989) 27 Archiv des Völkerrechts, pp. 286-327.
48. Bundesverwaltungsgericht 17 Dec. 1986, (1988) 48 Heidelberg Journal of International Law, p. 42.
49. D. Rauschning, 'Klagebefugnis von Auslandsbewohnern gegen eine inländische Atomanlagengenehmigung' (1987) 25 Archiv des Völkerrechts, pp. 312-32.
50. Bundesverwaltungsgericht 16 Oct. 2008, (2009) 34 Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht, p. 452
51. Oberverwaltungsgericht Lüneburg 1 Aug. 2011, (2011) 36 Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht, p. 1073.
52. Agreement concerning the Effects on the Territory of the Federal Republic of Germany of Construction and Operation of the Salzburg Airport, Vienna (Austria), 19 Dec. 1967, 945 UNTS 87
53. see I. Seidl-Hohenveldern, 'À propos des nuisances dues aux aéroports limitrophes: le cas de Salzbourg et le traité austro-allemand du 19 décembre 1967' (1973) 19 Annuaire Français de Droit International, pp. 890-94.
54. Art. 2 of the German Ratification Act of 9 Jan. 1974, [1974] Bundesgesetzblatt II, p. 13.
55. Art. VIII(5), Status of Forces Agreement, London (UK), 19 June 1951, 199 UNTS 67
56. see A.C. Kiss & C.C. Lambrechts, 'Les dommages causés au sol par les vols supersoniques' (1970) 16 Annuaire Français de Droit International, pp. 769-81, at 771.
57. Art. II, Treaty relating to the Boundary Waters and Questions Arising along the Boundary between the United States and Canada, Washington, DC (US), 11 Jan. 1909, (1910) 36 Statutes at Large 2448 (emphasis added).
58. Pretura di Livorno 27 Apr. 1974 (English summary in (1977) 3 Italian Yearbook of International Law, p. 294
59. Sand, n. 25 above, at pp. 92-4)
60. see A.C. Kiss, 'Un cas de pollution internationale: l'affaire des boues rouges' (1975) 102 Journal du Droit International, pp. 207-48, at 237.
61. Tribunale di Livorno 7 July 1976, (1976) 128 Giurisprudenza Italiana, p. 624
62. (English translation in (1997) 3 Italian Yearbook of International Law, p. 298).
63. Prud'hommie des Pêcheurs de Bastia c. Montedison Co. et SIBIT S.p.a., Cour de Cassation 3 Apr. 1978, (1978) Recueil Sirey-Dalloz II, p. 367.
64. Tribunal de Grande Instance (Bastia, 2ème chambre civile) 4 July 1985, (1987) 112 Foro Italiano IV, p. 499.
65. Cour de Cassation, n. 44 above.
66. Procuratura c. Maltese e Turli, Corte di Cassazione (Sezioni Unite) 25 Jan. 1989, (1990) 115 Foro Italiano I, p. 232
67. reversing Corte dei Conti (Sezioni Riunite) of 16 June 1984, (1985) 110 Foro Italiano III, p. 37.
68. A. Bianchi, 'Harm to the Environment in Italian Practice: The Interaction of International and Domestic Law', in P. Wetterstein (ed.), Harm to the Environment: The Right to Compensation and the Assessment of Damage (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 103-29, at 104-5.
69. Directive 78/176/EEC on Waste from the Titanium Dioxide Industry [1978] OJ L54/19.
70. Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, Barcelona (Spain), 16 Feb. 1976, in force 12 Feb. 1978
71. since amended as Protocol for the Prevention and Elimination of Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at Sea, Barcelona (Spain), 10 June 1995, not yet in force, both available at: http://www.unepmap.org/index.php?module=content2&catid=001001001.
72. Barcelona (Spain), 16 Feb. 1976, in force 12 Feb. 1978, 1102 UNTS 92
73. amended as: Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, Barcelona (Spain), 10 June 1995, in force 9 July 2004, available at: http://www.unepmap.org/index.php?module= content2&catid=001001004.
74. N. 50 above, Annex I(A) para. 8 (subject to further negotiations on specific thresholds).
75. See http://www.sec.gov/answers/form10k.htm.
76. See http://www.iso.org/iso-14000-essentials.
77. See http://www.responsiblecare.org.
78. Case 21/76, Bier Co. and Reinwater Foundation v. Mines de Potasse d'Alsace [1976] ECR I-1735.
79. The Foundation had to withdraw from the case after being denied standing in an interim decision by the Rotterdam District Court on 8 Jan. 1979: see Siehr, n. 12 above, at 381.
80. The ICPR was established by the Agreement on the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution, Bern (Switzerland), 29 Apr. 1963, in force 1 May 1965, 994 UNTS 3, as amended (see nn. 65 and 69 below)
81. C. Dieperink, 'International Water Negotiations under Asymmetry: Lessons from the Rhine Chlorides Dispute Settlement' (2011) 11 International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, pp. 139-57, at 145-47.
82. Brussels (Belgium), 27 Sept. 1968, in force 1 Feb. 1973, [1972] OJ L299/32.
83. The Convention has since been replaced by the EU Regulations 'Brussels-I' and 'Rome-II', respectively Regulation (EC) No. 44/2001, [2001] OJ L12/1
84. Regulation (EC) No. 864/2007, [2007] OJ L199/40.
85. See J. von Hein & C.U. Wolf, 'Transboundary Environmental Damage in the Conflict of Laws', in R. Wolfrum et al. (eds.), Environmental Liability in International Law: Towards a Coherent Conception (Erich Schmidt Verlag, 2005), pp. 381-454
86. A. Dickinson, The Rome-II Regulation: The Law Applicable to Non-Contractual Obligations (Oxford University Press, 2008, Supplement 2010).
87. Case 21/76, n. 56 above. H.U. Jessurun d'Oliveira, 'La pollution du Rhin et le droit international privé', in R. Hueting et al. (eds.), Rhine Pollution: Legal, Economic and Technical Aspects (Tjeenk Willink, 1978), pp. 81-127.
88. Bier, Strik, and Valstar Gardening Companies v. Mines Domaniales de Potasse d'Alsace S.A. (MDPA), Hoge Raad, 23 Sept. 1988 (English translation in (1990) 21 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, p. 443)
89. see A. Nollkaemper, 'Judicial Application of International Environmental Law in the Netherlands' (1998) 7 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, pp. 40-6, at 43.
90. A. Rest, 'Internationaler Umweltschutz vor Verwaltungs-, Zivil- und Strafgerichten: Der niederländisch-französische Rheinverschmutzungsprozess' (1985) 35 Austrian Journal of Public International Law, pp. 225-63, at 228-49.
91. See I. Romy, Les pollutions transfrontières des eaux: l'exemple du Rhin, moyens d'action des lésés (Payot, 1990).
92. See A. Wilhelm, 'Grenzüberschreitende Umweltverschmutzung und Haftung: Der Fall "Rhein"' (1991) 13 Natur und Recht, pp. 115-52.
93. Bonn (Germany), 3 Dec. 1976, in force 5 July 1985, 1404 UNTS 59.
94. A. Kiss, 'The Protection of theRhine against Pollution' (1985) 25 Natural Resources Journal, pp. 613-37.
95. Brussels (Belgium), 25 Sept. 1991, in force 1 Nov. 1994, 1840 UNTS 423.
96. See T. Bernauer, 'The International Financing of Environmental Protection: Lessons from Efforts to Protect the River Rhine against Chloride Pollution' (1995) 4 Environmental Politics, pp. 369-90.
97. B. Mcmahon (ed.), The Rhine Chlorides Arbitration Concerning the Auditing of Accounts (Netherlands-France), PCA Award Series, vol. 4 (Permanent Court of Arbitration, 2008).
98. Bern (Switzerland), 12 Apr. 1999, in force 1 Jan. 2003, [2000] OJ L 289/31
99. A. Nollkaemper, 'The Evolution of the Regime for the River Rhine', in S. Subedi (ed.), International Watercourses Law for the 21st Century: The Case of the River Ganges Basin (Ashgate, 2005), pp. 151-66.
100. Helsinki (Finland), 17 Mar. 1992, in force 6 Oct. 1996, available at: http://www.unece.org/env/water
101. See G. Reichert, Der nachhaltige Schutz grenzüberschreitender Gewässer in Europa: Die Entstehung eines völker- und europarechtlichen Umweltregimes (Duncker & Humblot, 2005). 71 [2000] OJ L327/1.
102. Chagos Islanders v. United Kingdom, Application No. 35622/04 (20 Feb. 2009), [2009] ECHR 410.
103. Background documents can be found in P.H. Sand, United States and Britain in Diego Garcia: The Future of a Controversial Base (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 69-121.
104. See also D.R. Snoxell, 'Anglo/American Complicity in the Removal of the Inhabitants of the Chagos Islands' (2009) 37 Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, pp. 127-34
105. D.S. Vine, Island of Shame: The Secret History of the U.S. Military Base in Diego Garcia (rev'd. edn, Princeton University Press, 2011).
106. see G.H. Flanz (ed.), Constitutions of the Countries of the World (Oceana, 1998), pp. 81, 95; and n. 89 below.
107. H. Fox, 'United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Dependent Territories', in R. Bernhardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vol. 4 (Elsevier, 2000), pp. 1025-29, at 1026.
108. In contrast, the UN Human Rights Committee considers the Covenants to apply to the BIOT, and in 2008 urged the UK government 'to include the territory in its next periodic report': Report of the Committee on its 93rd Session, UN Doc. CCPR/C/GBR/CO/6, Geneva (Switzerland), 30 July 2008, p. 6.
109. Among the environmental treaties ratified by the UK but not extended to the BIOT - out of concern for operations on the US military base - are the 1989 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, Basel (Switzerland) 22Mar. 1989, in force 5May 1992, 173 UNTS 57, available at: http://www.basel.int
110. the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 5 June 1992, in force 29 Dec. 1993, 1760 UNTS 79, available at: http://www.cbd.int/convention/text
111. the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto (Japan), 10Dec. 1997, in force 16 Feb. 2005, 2303 UNTS 148, available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol/items/2830.php
112. the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Stockholm (Sweden), 22 May 2001, in force 17May 2004, 2256 UNTS 119, available at: http://www.pops.int
113. and the Aarhus Convention (see n. 110 below).
114. See L. Moor & A.W.B. Simpson, 'Ghosts of Colonialism in the European Convention on Human Rights' (2005) 76 British Yearbook of International Law, pp. 121-93, at 162, 188, 193
115. P.H. Sand, 'Diego Garcia: British-American Legal Blackhole in the Indian Ocean?' (2009) 21 Journal of Environmental Law, pp. 113-39.
116. T. Tucker & B.T. Doughty, 'Naval Facilities, Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory: Management and Administration' (1988) 84 Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Maritime Engineering Group, pp. 191-215, at 213.
117. C.R.C. Sheppard & M. Spalding (eds.), Chagos Conservation Management Plan (Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 2003), p. 30.
118. Ramsar (Iran), 2 Feb. 1971, in force 21 Dec. 1975, 996 UNTS 245, available at: http://www.ramsar.org.Diego Garcia was listed as Site No. 1077 (2UK001) on 4 July 2001.
119. S. Allen, 'Responsibility and Redress: The Chagossian Litigation in the English Courts', in S.J.T.M. Evers & M. Kooy (eds.), Eviction from the Chagos Islands: Displacement and Struggle for Identity against Two World Powers (Brill Publishers, 2011), pp. 127-52.
120. Olivier Bancoult et al. v. Robert S. McNamara et al., 445 Federal Reporter 3rd Series 427 (D.C. Cir. 2006), certiorari denied on 16 Jan. 2007, 127 Supreme Court Reporter 1225 (2007).
121. The Queen (on the application of Bancoult) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Bancoult 2) [2008] UKHL 61, (2008) 4 All England Law Reports 1055
122. (2010) 138 International Law Reports 628
123. critical case notes in (2009) 103 American Journal of International Law, pp. 317-24
124. (2009) Public Law, pp. 260-86, 697-722.
125. British Indian Ocean Territory, Proclamation No. 1 of 2010 (Marine Protected Area) and Sch., 1 Apr. 2010
126. see P.H. Sand, 'The Chagos Archipelago: Footprint of Empire, or World Heritage?' (2010) 40 Environmental Policy and Law, pp. 232-42.
127. Statement by BIOT Commissioner C. Roberts (Overseas Territories Directorate, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office), as quoted in R. Mills, 'HMGFloats Proposal for Marine Reserve Covering the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory)', Cable EO12958 from the US Embassy in London to the State Department (15 May 2009)
128. see 'US Embassy Cables: Foreign Office Does Not Regret Evicting Chagos Islanders', The Guardian (2 Dec. 2010).
129. See 'New Protection for the Marine Life of the British Indian Ocean Territory', Foreign and Commonwealth Office Press Statement, 1 Apr. 2010, available at: http//www.ukotcf.org/pdf/News/MPA100401FCOStatementonBIOT.pdf.
130. Montego Bay (Jamaica), 10 Dec. 1982, in force 16 Nov. 1994, 1833 UNTS 3, available at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention-agreements/convention- agreements.htm.
131. See n. 76 above; G. Abraham, 'Paradise Claimed: Disputed Sovereignty Over the Chagos Archipelago' (2011) 128 South African Law Journal, pp. 63-99
132. I. Papanicolopulu, 'Submission to Arbitration of the Dispute on the Marine Protected Area around the Chagos Archipelago' (2011) 26 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, pp. 667-78.
133. S. Allen, 'International Law and the Resettlement of the (Outer) Chagos Islands' (2008) 8 Human Rights Law Review, pp. 683-702
134. J.C. de l'Estrac, L'an prochain à Diego Garcia . . . (Éditions Le Printemps, 2011).
135. F. Pearce, 'Conservation at the Expense of Homes?', New Scientist, 21 Feb. 2009, 10
136. C.R.C. Sheppard & J. Turner, 'Eco-Imperialism', letter to the editor, New Scientist, 21 Mar. 2009.
137. E.M. de Santo et al., 'Fortress Conservation at Sea: A Commentary on the Chagos Marine Protected Area' (2010) 35 Marine Policy, pp. 258-60.
138. R v. SoS Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Bancoult 2), n. 83 above, at para. 23 ('looming over the whole debate was the effect of global warming which was raising the sea level').
139. R.P. Dunne et al., 'Contemporary Sea Level in the Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean' (2011) 82-83 Global and Planetary Change, pp. 25-37.
140. G. Scelle, 'Obsession du territoire', in F.M. van Asbeck et al. (eds.), Symbolae Verzijl (Martinus Nijhoff, 1958), pp. 347-61.
141. K. Lorenz, Die Rückseite des Spiegels: Versuch einer Naturgeschichte menschlichen Erkennens (Piper, 1973), pp. 30-32, 320. The English translation by R. Taylor, Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge (Harcourt Brace, 1978) unfortunately misplaces the nuance of the metaphor: Lorenz was not at all concerned with some wonderland behind the looking-glass, but most pragmatically with the mirror itself, and its dark reverse side (Rückseite) neglected by conventional epistemologies.
142. L. Friedman, 'Borders: On the Emerging Sociology of Transnational Law' (1996) 32 Stanford Journal of International Law, pp. 65-90
143. J. Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Harvard University Press, 1999).
144. Stockholm (Sweden), 19 Feb. 1974, in force 5 Oct. 1976, 1092 UNTS 279.
145. Recommendations C(74)224 on Principles Concerning Transfrontier Pollution, 14 Nov. 1974
146. C(76)55 on Equal Right of Access in Relation to Transfrontier Pollution, 11 May 1976
147. C(77)28 on the Implementation of a Regime of Equal Right of Access and Non-Discrimination in Relation to Transfrontier Pollution, 17 May 1977.
148. E.g., Art. 2(6) of the unece Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo (Finland), 25 Feb. 1991, in force 10 Sept. 1997, 1989 UNTS 309, available at: http://www.unece.org/env/eia/eia. html
149. Art. 9(3) of the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Helsinki (Finland), 17 March 1992, in force 6 Oct. 1996, 1936 UNTS 269
150. Art. 32 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, New York, NY (US) 21 May 1997, not yet in force, (1997) 36 International Legal Materials, p. 719.
151. Art. 15 ('Non-Discrimination'); see the Report of the International Law Commission on its 53rd Session, 23 Apr.-1 June and 2 July-10 Aug. 2001, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001), at p. 427.
152. See text at nn. 14-18 above.
153. Based on Art. 258 TFEU. See L. Krämer, 'Du contrôle de l'application des directives communautaires en matière de l'environnement' (1988) 31 Revue du Marché Commun, pp. 22-40.
154. Website revised in Sept. 2009: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/law/ complaints.htm.
155. See Annex 2 of EEC Information Memo P/90/5, 'Control of the Application of Community Law on Environment: First Commission Report', 8 Feb. 1990
156. Table 2 in P.H. Sand, Lessons Learned in Global Environmental Governance (World Resources Institute, 1990), at p. 32.
157. Art. 14 NAAEC (Canada-Mexico-USA, 13 Sept. 1993), (1993) 32 International Legal Materials, p. 1480.
158. See K. Raustiala, 'Citizen Submissions and Treaty Review in the NAAEC', in D.L. Markell & J.H. Knox (eds.), Greening NAFTA: The North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation (Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 256-73.
159. World Bank Resolution 93-10 of 22 Sept. 1993, (1993) 4 Yearbook of International Environmental Law, p. 883
160. D. Clark et al. (eds.), Demanding Accountability: Civil Society Claims and the World Bank Inspection Panel (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).
161. It is no coincidence that the chairperson of the Inspection Panel during its formative years (2003-2007) was a distinguished environmental lawyer, Edith Brown Weiss
162. see E. Brown Weiss et al., 'The World Bank Inspection Panel: Participation and Accountability', in S. Kuyama & M.R. Fowler (eds.), Envisioning Reform: Enhancing UN Accountability in the Twenty-First Century (United Nations University Press, 2009), pp. 299-332.
163. D. Bradlow & A. Naudé-Fourie, 'Independent Accountability Mechanisms at Regional Development Banks', in Hale & Held, n. 5 above.
164. Term coined by K. Raustiala, 'The "Participatory Revolution" in International Environmental Law' (1997) 21 Harvard Environmental Law Review, pp. 537-86.
165. Aarhus (Denmark), 25 June 1998, in force 30 Oct. 2001, 2161 UNTS 447, available at: http://www.unece.org/environmental-policy/treaties/public- participation/aarhus-convention.html.
166. See Decision I/7 of the 1st Meeting of the Parties, UN Doc. ECE/MP.PP/2002/2/Add.8, Annex, Geneva (Switzerland), Oct. 2002.
167. Art. 8 of the Protocol on Ozone-Depleting Substances, Montreal (Canada), 16 Sept. 1987, in force 1 Jan. 1989, available at: http://ozone.unep.org/, and Decision II/5 of the 2nd Meeting of the Parties.
168. P. Széll, 'The Montreal Protocol: A New Legal Model for Compliance Control', in P.G. Le Prestre et al. (eds.), Protecting the Ozone Layer: Lessons, Models, and Prospects (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), pp. 91-8.
169. See generally T. Treves et al. (eds.), Non-Compliance Procedures and Mechanisms, and the Effectiveness of International Environmental Agreements (Asser Press, 2009).
170. See A. Epiney, 'The Role of NGOs in the Process of Ensuring Compliance with MEAs', in U. Beyerlin et al. (eds.), Ensuring Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Dialogue between Practitioners and Academia (Martinus Nijhoff, 2006), pp. 319-52, at 325, 340.
171. T. Gehring, 'International Environmental Regimes: Dynamic Sectoral Legal Systems' (1990) 1 Yearbook of International Environmental Law, pp. 35-56, at 52.
172. The standard dispute settlement provisions of most multilateral environmental treaties have never been used in practice: see Romano, n. 11 above, at p. 1041.
173. J. Klabbers, 'Compliance Procedures', in D. Bodansky et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 995-1009.
174. See V. Koester, 'The Compliance Committee of the Aarhus Convention: An Overview of Procedures and Jurisprudence' (2007) 37(2/3) Environmental Policy and Law, pp. 83-96.
175. 'Guidance Document on the Aarhus Convention Compliance Mechanism', p. 5, available at: http://live.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/pp/compliance/CC- GuidanceDocument.pdf.
176. See C. Pitea, 'NGOs in Non-Compliance Mechanisms under Multilateral Environmental Agreements: From Tolerance to Recognition?', in T. Treves (ed.), Civil Society, International Courts and Compliance Bodies (Asser Press, 2004), pp. 205-24.
177. On recent jurisprudence of the Committee, see V. Koester, 'The Compliance Mechanism: Outcomes and Stocktaking' (2011) 41 Environmental Policy and Law, pp. 196-204.
178. E-mail communication from the BIOT Administrator to the author (26 Nov. 2008)
179. Report of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 3-14 June 1992, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, vol. I/Annex I, p. 3, (1992) 31 International Legal Materials, p. 874.
180. See European Parliament, Resolution of 29 Sept. 2011 on Developing a Common EU Position Ahead of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), provisional edn. B7-0522/2011, at paras. 82-83 ('effective global implementation of Rio Principle 10', 'global convention')
181. Submission by Brazil to the Preparatory Process of the Rio+20 Conference, Brasilia (Brazil), 1 Nov. 2011, at p. 33 ('launch of negotiations on a global convention').
182. See http://www.accessinitiative.org.
183. See E. Petkova & G. Bruce (eds.), Assessing Access to Information, Participation, and Justice for the Environment: A Guide (World Resources Institute, 2003).
184. But see, on initial US government resistance, P.H. Sand, 'The Right to Know: Freedom of Environmental Information in Comparative and International Law' (2011) 20 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law, pp. 1-30, at 23.
185. See 11th Special Session/Global Environmental Forum, Bali (Indonesia), 26 Feb. 2010, UN Doc. UNEP/GCSS.XI/4/1/Annex.
186. See F. Bacon, Essayes or Counsel, Civill and Morall (Havilland, 1625): 24 ('Of Innovations').