Lentigos, Melanocytic Naevi and Melanoma

Rook's Textbook of Dermatology: Eighth Edition

Volumn 3, Issue , 2010, Pages 2660-2716

  Newton Bishop, Julia A ^a  

^a ST JAMES S UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Atypical (dysplastic) naevus; Blue naevus; Congenital naevus; Freckle; Halo naevus; Lentigo; Melanocytic naevus; Melanoma

Indexed keywords

EID: 84888694320     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444317633.ch54     Document Type: Chapter

References (302)

1. Breathnach AS. Melanocyte distribution in forearm epidermis of freckled human subjects. J Invest Dermatol 1957; 29: 253-61.
2. Breathnach AS, Wyllie LM. Electron microscopy of melanocytes and melanosomes in freckled human epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 1964; 42: 389-94.
3. Bastiaens M, ter Huurne J, Gruis N et al. The melanocortin-1-receptor gene is the major freckle gene. Hum Mol Genet 2001; 10: 1701-8.
4. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
5. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: III. Family history, actinic damage and phenotypic factors. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 2040-59.
6. Toelle SP, Boltshauser E, Wirth MG, Itin P. Association of lentiginous mosaicism and congenital cataract in a girl. Eur J Dermatol 2006; 16: 360-2.
7. Na JI, Park KC, Youn SW. Familial eruptive lentiginosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 55: S38-40.
8. Hickey JR, Robson A, Barker JN, Smith CH. Does topical tacrolimus induce lentigines in children with atopic dermatitis? A report of three cases. Br J Dermatol 2005; 152: 152-4.
9. Tosti A, Piraccini BM, Misciali C, Vincenzi C. Lentiginous eruption due to topical immunotherapy. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139: 544-5.
10. Bauer AJ, Stratakis CA. The lentiginoses: cutaneous markers of systemic disease and a window to new aspects of tumourigenesis. J Med Genet 2005; 42: 801-10.
11. Abdelmalek NF, Gerber TL, Menter A. Cardiocutaneous syndromes and associations. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 46: 161-83, quiz 183.
12. Ho JC, Chan YC, Giam YC et al. Flexural pigmentation with multiple lentigines: a new primary pigmentary disorder? Br J Dermatol 2006; 154: 382-4.
13. Stratakis CA. Genetics of Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, Carney complex and other familial lentiginoses. Hormone Res 2000; 54: 334-43.
14. Digilio MC, Conti E, Sarkozy A et al. Grouping of multiple-lentigines/LEOPARD and Noonan syndromes on the PTEN11 gene. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 71:389-94.
15. Chong WS, Klanwarin W, Giam YC. Generalized lentiginosis in two children lacking systemic associations: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Dermatol 2004; 21: 139-45.
16. Shibusawa Y, Tamura A, Mochiki E et al. c-kit Mutation in generalized lentigines associated with gastrointestinal stromal tumor. Dermatology 2004; 208: 217-20.
17. Derancourt C, Bourdon-Lanoy E, Grob JJ et al. Multiple large solar lentigos on the upper back as clinical markers of past severe sunburn: a case-control study. Dermatology 2007; 214: 25-31.
18. McLean DL, Gallagher RP. Sunburn freckles, cafe-au-lait macules, and other pigmented lesions of schoolchildren: The Vancouver Mole Study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995; 32: 565-70.
19. Monestier S, Gaudy C, Gouvernet J et al. Multiple senile lentigos of the face, a skin ageing pattern resulting from a life excess of intermittent sun exposure in dark-skinned caucasians: a case-control study. Br J Dermatol 2006; 154: 438-44.
20. Ortonne JP, Pandya AG, Lui H, Hexsel D. Treatment of solar lentigines. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 54: S262-71.
21. Kawana S, Ochiai H, Tachihara R. Objective evaluation of the effect of intense pulsed light on rosacea and solar lentigines by spectrophotometric analysis of skin color. Dermatol Surg 2007; 33: 449-54.
22. Yamashita T, Negishi K, Hariya T et al. Intense pulsed light therapy for superficial pigmented lesions evaluated by reflectance-mode confocal microscopy and optical coherence tomography. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126: 2281-6.
23. Ortonne JP. Retinoid therapy of pigmentary disorders. Dermatol Ther 2006; 19:280-8.
24. Tanzi EL, Lupton JR, Alster TS. Lasers in dermatology: four decades of progress. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003; 49: 1-31, quiz 31-4.
25. Basarab T, Millard TP, McGregor JM, Barker JN. Atypical pigmented lesions following extensive PUVA therapy. Clin Exp Dermatol 2000; 25: 135-7.
26. Abdullah AN, Keczkes K. Cutaneous and ocular side-effects of PUVA photochemotherapy- a 10-year follow-up study. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989; 14: 421-4.
27. Rhodes AR, Stern RS, Melski JW. The PUVA lentigo: an analysis of predisposing factors. J Invest Dermatol 1983; 81: 459-63.
28. Nakagawa H, Rhodes AR, Momtaz TK, Fitzpatrick TB. Morphologic alterations of epidermal melanocytes and melanosomes in PUVA lentigines: a comparative ultrastructural investigation of lentigines induced by PUVA and sunlight. J Invest Dermatol 1984; 82: 101-7.
29. Stern RS. Risks of cancer associated with long-term exposure to PUVA in humans: current status-1991. Blood Cells 1992; 18: 91-7, discussion 98-9.
30. Stern RS. The risk of melanoma in association with long-term exposure to PUVA. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 44: 755-61.
31. Lindelof B, Sigurgeirsson B, Tegner E et al. PUVA and cancer risk: the Swedish follow-up study. Br J Dermatol 1999; 141: 108-12.
32. Bolognia JL. Reticulated black solar lentigo ('ink spot' lentigo). Arch Dermatol 1992; 128: 934-40.
33. Lenane P, Keane CO, Connell BO et al. Genital melanotic macules: clinical, histologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural features. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 42: 640-4.
34. Barnhill RL, Albert LS, Shama SK et al. Genital lentiginosis: a clinical and histopathologic study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990; 22: 453-60.
35. Carlson JA, Mu XC, Slominski A et al. Melanocytic proliferations associated with lichen sclerosus. Arch Dermatol 2002; 138: 77-87.
36. Meleti M, Rene Leemans C, Mooi WJ et al. Oral malignant melanoma: a review of the literature. Oral Oncol 2007; 43: 116-21.
37. Rajpar SF, Marsden JR. Imiquimod in the treatment of lentigo maligna. Br J Dermatol 2006; 155: 653-6.
38. Gupta G, Williams RE, Mackie RM. The labial melanotic macule: a review of 79 cases. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136: 772-5.
39. Weathers DR, Corio RL, Crawford BE et al. The labial melanotic macule. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1976; 42: 196-205.
40. Maize JC. Mucosal melanosis. Dermatol Clin 1988; 6: 283-93.
41. Gupta G, MacKay IR, MacKie RM. Q-switched ruby laser in the treatment of labial melanotic macules. Lasers Surg Med 1999; 25: 219-22.
42. Zembowicz A, Mihm MC. Dermal dendritic melanocytic proliferations: an update. Histopathology 2004; 45: 433-51.
43. Egemen A, Ikizoglu T, Ergor S et al. Frequency and characteristics of Mongolian spots among Turkish children in Aegean region. Turkish J Pediatr 2006; 48:232-6.
44. Moosavi Z, Hosseini T. One-year survey of cutaneous lesions in 1000 consecutive Iranian newborns. Pediatr Dermatol 2006; 23: 61-3.
45. Chan HH, Kono T. Nevus of Ota: clinical aspects and management. Skinmed 2003; 2: 89-96, quiz 97-8.
46. Stanford DG, Georgouras KE. Dermal melanocytosis: a clinical spectrum. Australas J Dermatol 1996; 37: 19-25.
47. Rahimi-Movaghar V, Karimi M. Meningeal melanocytoma of the brain and oculodermal melanocytosis (nevus of Ota): case report and literature review. Surg Neurol 2003; 59: 200-10.
48. Baroody M, Holds JB. Extensive locoregional malignant melanoma transformation in a patient with oculodermal melanocytosis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004; 113:317-22.
49. Sharan S, Grigg JR, Billson FA. Bilateral naevus of Ota with choroidal melanoma and diffuse retinal pigmentation in a dark skinned person. Br J Ophthalmol 2005; 89: 1529.
50. Theunissen P, Spincemaille G, Pannebakker M, Lambers J. Meningeal melanoma associated with nevus of Ota: case report and review. Clinical Neuropathol 1993; 12: 125-9.
51. Sun CC, Lu YC, Lee EF, Nakagawa H. Naevus fusco-caeruleus zygomaticus. Br J Dermatol 1987; 117: 545-53.
52. Lu Z, Fang L, Jiao S et al. Treatment of 522 patients with Nevus of Ota with Qswitched Alexandrite laser. Chin Med J 2003; 116: 226-30.
53. Kono T, Nozaki M, Chan HH, Mikashima Y. A retrospective study looking at the long-term complications of Q-switched ruby laser in the treatment of nevus of Ota. Lasers Surg Med 2001; 29: 156-9.
54. Castilla E, Da Graca Dutra M, Orioli-Parreiras I. Epidemiology of congenital pigmented naevi: risk factors. Br J Dermatol 1981; 104: 421-7.
55. Osburn K, Schosser RH, Everett MA. Congenital pigmented and vascular lesions in newborn infants. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987; 16: 788-92.
56. Kopf AW, Levine LJ, Rigel DS et al. Prevalence of congenital-nevus-like nevi, nevi spili, and café au lait spots. Arch Dermatol 1985; 121: 766-9.
57. Goss B, Forman D, Ansell P et al. The prevalence and characteristics of congenital pigmented lesions in newborn babies in Oxford. Paed Perinatal Epidemiol 1990; 4:448-57.
58. Anon. Consensus conference: Precursors to malignant melanoma. JAMA 1984; 251: 1864-6.
59. Castilla E, Dutra M, Orioli-Parreiras I. Epidemiology of congenital pigmented nevi. Incidence rates and relative frequencies. Br J Dermatol 1981; 104: 307-15.
60. Strauss RM, Newton Bishop JA. Spontaneous involution of congenital melanocytic nevi of the scalp. J Am Acad Dermatol 2008; 58: 508-11.
61. Ruiz-Maldonado R, Tamayo L, Laterza AM, Duran C. Giant pigmented nevi: clinical, histopathologic, and therapeutic considerations. J Pediatr 1992; 120:906-11.
62. Carney J, Gordon H, Carpenter P et al. The complex of myxomas, spotty pigmentation and endocrine overactivity. Medicine 1985; 64: 270-83.
63. Marghoob AA, Orlow SJ, Kopf AW. Continuing medical education-syndromes associated with melanocytic nevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 29: 373-88.
64. Rhodes AR, Silverman RA, Harrist TJ, Melski JW. A histologic comparison of congenital and acquired nevomelanocytic nevi. Arch Dermatol 1985; 121: 1266-73.
65. Walton R, Jacobs A, Cox A. Pigmented lesions in newborn infants. Br J Dermatol 1976; 95: 389-96.
66. Johnson H. Permanent removal of pigmentation from giant hairy nevi by dermabrasion in early age. Br J PLast Surg 1977; 30: 321.
67. Mark F, Mihm M, Litelpo M et al. Congenital melanocytic naevi of the small and garment type. Hum Pathol 1973; 4: 396-418.
68. Borges AF, Lineberger AS. Malignant melanoma without metastasis in a giant nevus. Ann Plast Surg 1984; 12: 454-60.
69. Mancianti M-L, Clark WH, Hayes FA, Herlyn M. Malignant melanoma simulants arising in congenital melanocytic nevi do not show experimental evidence for a malignant phenotype. Am J Pathol 1990; 136: 817-29.
70. Goodman RM, Caren J, Ziprkowski M et al. Genetic considerations in giant pigmented hairy naevus. Br J Dermatol 1971; 85: 150-7.
71. Swerdlow AJ, English JSC, Qiao Z. The risk of melanoma in patients with congenital nevi: A cohort study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995; 32: 595-9.
72. Reed R, Martin P. Variants of melanoma. Semin Cutan Med Surg 1997; 16:137-58.
73. Illig L, Weidner F, Hundeiker M et al. Congenital nevi ≤10 cm as precursors to melanoma. 52 cases, a review, and a new conception. Arch Dermatol 1985; 121:1274-81.
74. Krengel S, Hauschild A, Schafer T. Melanoma risk in congenital melanocytic naevi: a systematic review. Br J Dermatol 2006; 155: 1-8.
75. Rhodes A, Melski J. Small congenital nevocellular nevi and the risk of cutaneous melanoma. J Pediatrics 1982; 100: 219-24.
76. Rhodes A, Sober A, Day C et al. The malignant potential of small congenital naevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 1982; 6: 230-41.
77. Slaughter J, Hardman J, Kemple L et al. Neurocutaneous melanosis and leptomeningeal melanocytosis in children. Arch Dermatol 1969; 88: 298-304.
78. Foster RD, Williams ML, Barkovich AJ et al. Giant congenital melanocytic nevi: the significance of neurocutaneous melanosis in neurologically asymptomatic children. Plast Reconstr Surg 2001; 107: 933-41.
79. Miller C, Becker DJ. Removing pigmentation by dermabrading nevi in infancy. Plast Reconstr Surg 1979; 32: 124-6.
80. De Raeve LE, De Coninck AL, Dierickx PR, Roseeuw DI. Neonatal curettage of giant congenital melanocytic nevi. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132: 20-2.
81. Rompel R, Moser M, Petres J. Dermabrasion of congenital nevocellular nevi: experience in 215 patients. Dermatology 1997; 194: 261-7.
82. Bohn J, Svensson H, Aberg M. Dermabrasion of large congenital melanocytic naevi in neonates. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg 2000; 34: 321-6.
83. Koot H, de Waard-van der Spek F, Peer C et al. Psychological sequelae in 29 children with giant congenital naevi. Clin Dermatol 2000; 25: 598-3.
84. Cox NH, Malcolm A, Long ED. Cases of superficial spreading melanoma and of blue naevus within naevus spilus, with ultrastructural assessment of giant pigment granules. Dermatology 1997; 194: 213-6.
85. Piana S, Gelli MC, Grenzi L et al. Multifocal melanoma arising on nevus spilus. Int J Dermatol 2006; 45: 1380-1.
86. Zhu G, Duffy DL, Eldridge A et al. A major quantitative-trait locus for mole density is linked to the familial melanoma gene CDKN2A: a maximumlikelihood combined linkage and association analysis in twins and their sibs. Am J Hum Genet 1999; 65: 483-92.
87. Wachsmuth RC, Turner F, Barrett JH et al. The effect of sun exposure in determining nevus density in UK adolescent twins. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 124:56-62.
88. Gefeller O, Tarantino J, Lederer P et al. The relation between patterns of vacation sun exposure and the development of acquired melanocytic nevi in German children 6-7 years of age. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 165: 1162-9.
89. Green A, Siskind V, Hansen ME et al. Melanocytic nevi in schoolchildren in Queensland. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 20: 1054-60.
90. Kelly JW, Rivers JK, MacLennan R et al. Sunlight: a major factor associated with the development of melanocytic nevi in Australian schoolchildren. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 30: 40-8.
91. Rodvall Y, Wahlgren CF, Ullen H, Wiklund K. Common melanocytic nevi in 7- year-old schoolchildren residing at different latitudes in Sweden. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16: 122-7.
92. dos Santos Silva I, Higgins C, Abramsky T et al. Overseas sun exposure, nevus counts, and premature skin aging in young English women: a population-based survey. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129: 50-9.
93. Bataille V, Grulich A, Sasieni P et al. The association between naevi and melanoma in populations with different levels of sun exposure: a joint case-control study of melanoma in the UK and Australia. Br J Cancer 1998; 77: 505-10.
94. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: I. Common and atypical naevi. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 28-44.
95. Broberg A, Augustsson A. Atopic dermatitis and melanocytic naevi. Br J Dermatol 2000; 142: 306-9.
96. Zvulunov A, Wyatt DT, Laud PW, Esterly NB. Influence of genetic and environmental factors on melanocytic naevi: a lesson from Turner's syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1998; 138: 993-7.
97. Hughes B, Bailey CC. Excess benign melanocytic naevi. BMJ 1989; 299: 854-5.
98. Szepietowski J, Wasik F, Szepietowski T. Excess benign melanocytic naevi in renal transplant recipients. Dermatology 1997; 194: 17-9.
99. Inskip PD, Curtis RE. New malignancies following childhood cancer in the United States, 1973-2002. Int J Cancer 2007; 121: 2233-40.
100. Maule M, Scelo G, Pastore G et al. Risk of second malignant neoplasms after childhood leukemia and lymphoma: an international study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99: 790-800.
101. Schrader WA, Helwig EB. Balloon cell nevi. Cancer 1967; 20: 1502-14.
102. Evans MJ, Gray ES, Blessing K. Histopathological features of acral melanocytic nevi in children: study of 21 cases. Pediatr Dev Pathol 1998; 1: 388-92.
103. Cullen SI. Incidence of nev. Report of survey of the palms, soles, and genitalia of 10,000 young men. Arch Dermatol 1962; 86: 40-3.
104. Braun RP, Baran R, Le Gal FA et al. Diagnosis and management of nail pigmentations. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007; 56: 835-47.
105. Thomas L, Dalle S. Dermoscopy provides useful information for the management of melanonychia striata. Dermatol Ther 2007; 20: 3-10.
106. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
107. Masson P. My conception of cellular nevi. Cancer 1951; 4: 9-38.
108. Krengel S. Nevogenesis-new thoughts regarding a classical problem. Am J Dermatopathol 2005; 27: 456-65.
109. Gray-Schopfer VC, Cheong SC, Chong H et al. Cellular senescence in naevi and immortalisation in melanoma: a role for p16? Br J Cancer 2006; 95: 496-505.
110. Baranda L, Torres-Alvarez B, Moncada B et al. Presence of activated lymphocytes in the peripheral blood of patients with halo nevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 41:567-72.
111. Kolm I, Di Stefani A, Hofmann-Wellenhof R et al. Dermoscopy patterns of halo nevi. Arch Dermatol 2006; 142: 1627-32.
112. Meyerson LB. A peculiar papulosquamous eruption involving pigmented nevi. Arch Dermatol 1971; 103: 510-2.
113. Brandt O, Christophers E, Folster-Holst R. Halo dermatitis followed by the development of vitiligo associated with Sutton's nevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005; 52: S101-4.
114. Ramon R, Silvestre JF, Betlloch I et al. Progression of Meyerson's naevus to Sutton's naevus. Dermatology 2000; 200: 337-8.
115. Mehregan AH, King JR. Multiple target-like pigmented nevi. Arch Dermatol 1972; 5: 129-30.
116. Spitz S. Melanomas of childhood. Am J Pathol 1947; 24: 591-609.
117. Barnhill RL. The spitzoid lesion: rethinking Spitz tumors, atypical variants, 'spitzoid melanoma' and risk assessment. Mod Pathol 2006; 19 (Suppl. 2): S21-33.
118. Mooi WJ, Krausz T. Spitz nevus versus spitzoid melanoma: diagnostic difficulties, conceptual controversies. Adv Anat Pathol 2006; 13: 147-56.
119. Ferrara G, Argenziano G, Soyer HP et al. The spectrum of Spitz nevi: a clinicopathologic study of 83 cases. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141: 1381-7.
120. Reed RJ, Ichinose H, Clark WH Jr, Mihm MC Jr. Common and uncommon melanocytic nevi and borderline melanomas. Semin Oncol 1975; 2: 119-47.
121. Morgan CJ, Nyak N, Cooper A et al. Multiple Spitz naevi: a report of both variants with clinical and histopathological correlation. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006; 31:368-71.
122. Smith SA, Day CL Jr, Vander Ploeg DE. Eruptive widespread Spitz nevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986; 15: 1155-9.
123. Cesinaro AM, Foroni M, Sighinolfi P et al. Spitz nevus is relatively frequent in adults: a clinico-pathologic study of 247 cases related to patient's age. Am J Dermatopathol 2005; 27: 469-75.
124. Crotty KA, Scolyer RA, Li L et al. Spitz naevus versus spitzoid melanoma: when and how can they be distinguished? Pathology 2002; 34: 6-12.
125. Spatz A, Calonje E, Handfield-Jones S, Barnhill RL. Spitz tumors in children: a grading system for risk stratification. Arch Dermatol 1999; 135: 282-5.
126. Barnhill RL, Flotte TJ, Fleischli M, Perez-Atayde A. Cutaneous melanoma and atypical Spitz tumors in childhood. Cancer 1995; 76: 1833-45.
127. Bastian BC, Wesselmann U, Pinkel D, Leboit PE. Molecular cytogenetic analysis of Spitz nevi shows clear differences to melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 1999; 113:1065-9.
128. Barr RJ, Morales RV, Graham JH. Desmoplastic nevus: a distinct histologic variant of mixed spindle cell and epithelioid cell nevus. Cancer 1980; 46:557-64.
129. Schmoeckel C, Wildi G, Schafer T. Spitz nevus versus malignant melanoma: Spitz nevi predominate on the thighs in patients younger than 40 years of age, melanomas on the trunk in patients 40 years of age or older. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007; 56: 753-8.
130. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
131. Gambini C, Rongioletti F. Recurrent Spitz nevus. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Dermatopathol 1994; 16: 409-13.
132. Urso C, Borgognoni L, Saieva C et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with 'atypical Spitz tumors.' A report on 12 cases. Hum Pathol 2006; 37:816-23.
133. Levene A. On the natural history and comparative pathology of the blue naevus. Ann Roy Coll Surg 1980; 62: 327-34.
134. Ferrara G, Soyer HP, Malvehy J et al. The many faces of blue nevus: A clinicopathologic study. J Cutan Pathol 2007; 34: 543-51.
135. Flauta VS, Lingamfelter DC, Dang LM, Lankachandra KM. Deep penetrating nevus: a case report and brief literature review. Diag Pathol 2006; 1: 31.
136. Mones JM, Ackerman AB. 'Atypical' blue nevus, 'malignant' blue nevus, and 'metastasizing' blue nevus: a critique in historical perspective of three concepts flawed fatally. Am J Dermatopathol 2004; 26: 407-30.
137. Leopold JG, Richards DB. Cellular blue naevi. J Pathol Bacteriol 1967; 94:247-55.
138. Merkow LP, Burt RC, Hayeslip DW et al. A cellular and malignant blue nevus: a light and electron microscopic study. Cancer 1969; 24: 888-96.
139. Ferrara G, Argenziano G, Zgavec B et al. 'Compound blue nevus': a reappraisal of 'superficial blue nevus with prominent intraepidermal dendritic melanocytes' with emphasis on dermoscopic and histopathologic features. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 46: 85-9.
140. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
141. Granter SR, McKee PH, Calonje E et al. Melanoma associated with blue nevus and melanoma mimicking cellular blue nevus: a clinicopathologic study of 10 cases on the spectrum of so-called 'malignant blue nevus'. Am J Surg Pathol 2001; 25: 316-23.
142. Pich A, Chiusa L, Margaria E, Aloi F. Proliferative activity in the malignant cellular blue nevus. Hum Pathol 1993; 24: 1323-9.
143. Elder DE. The dysplastic nevus. Pathology 1985; 17: 291-7.
144. Clark WH Jr, Reimer RR, Greene M et al. Origin of familial malignant melanomas from heritable melanocytic lesions. 'The B-K mole syndrome'. Arch Dermatol 1978; 114: 732-8.
145. Frichot BC 3rd, Lynch HT, Guirgis HA et al. New cutaneous phenotype in familial malignant melanoma. Lancet 1977; 1: 864-5.
146. Bergman W, Palan A, Went LN. Clinical and genetic studies in six Dutch kindreds with the dysplastic naevus syndrome. Ann Hum Genetics 1986; 50:249-58.
147. Augustsson A, Stierner U, Suurkula M, Rosdahl I. Prevalence of common and dysplastic naevi in a Swedish population. Br J Dermatol 1991; 124: 152-6.
148. Ballone E, Passamonti M, Lappa G et al. Pigmentary traits, nevi and skin phototypes in a youth population of Central Italy. Eur J Epidemiol 1999; 15: 189-95.
149. Schafer T, Merkl J, Klemm E et al. The epidemiology of nevi and signs of skin aging in the adult general population: Results of the KORA-survey 2000. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126: 1490-6.
150. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: I. Common and atypical naevi. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 28-44.
151. Zhu G, Duffy DL, Eldridge A et al. A major quantitative-trait locus for mole density is linked to the familial melanoma gene CDKN2A: a maximum-likelihood combined linkage and association analysis in twins and their sibs. Am J Hum Genet 1999; 65: 483-92.
152. Carli P, Biggeri A, Nardini P et al. Epidemiology of atypical melanocytic naevi: an analytical study in a Mediterranean population. Eur J Cancer Prev 1997; 6:506-11.
153. Bataille V, Newton Bishop JA, Sasieni P et al. Risk of cutaneous melanoma in relation to the numbers, types and sites of naevi: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 1996; 73: 1605-11.
154. Newton JA, Bataille V, Griffiths K et al. How common is the atypical mole syndrome phenotype in apparently sporadic melanoma? J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 29: 989-96.
155. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
156. Melanoma Genetics Consortium. www.genomel.org.
157. Parkin D, Whelan S, Ferlay J et al. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. IARC Scientific Publications No 143, Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer II, 1997.
158. International Agency for Research on Cancer. CANCERMondial. http://wwwdep.iarc.fr/.
159. de Vries E, Bray FI, Coebergh JW, Parkin DM. Changing epidemiology of malignant cutaneous melanoma in Europe 1953-1997: rising trends in incidence and mortality but recent stabilizations in western Europe and decreases in Scandinavia. Int J Cancer 2003; 107: 119-26.
160. MacKie RM, Bray CA, Hole DJ et al. Incidence of and survival from malignant melanoma in Scotland: an epidemiological study. Lancet 2002; 360: 587-91.
161. Newnham A, Moller H. Trends in the incidence of cutaneous malignant melanomas in the south east of England, 1960-1998. J Public Health Med 2002; 24: 268-75.
162. Downing A, Newton-Bishop JA, Forman D. Recent trends in cutaneous malignant melanoma in the Yorkshire region of England; incidence, mortality and survival in relation to stage of disease, 1993-2003. Br J Cancer 2006; 95: 91-5.
163. Jemal A, Devesa SS, Fears TR, Hartge P. Cancer surveillance series: changing patterns of cutaneous malignant melanoma mortality rates among whites in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 811-8.
164. Coory M, Baade P, Aitken J et al. Trends for in situ and invasive melanoma in Queensland, Australia, 1982-2002. Cancer Causes Control 2006; 17: 21-7.
165. Giles GG, Armstrong BK, Burton RC et al. Has mortality from melanoma stopped rising in Australia? Analysis of trends between 1931 and 1994. BMJ 1996; 312:1121-5.
166. Baade P, Coory M. Trends in melanoma mortality in Australia: 1950-2002 and their implications for melanoma control. Aust N Z J Public Health 2005; 29:383-6.
167. Florez A, Cruces M. Melanoma epidemic: true or false? Int J Dermatol 2004; 43:405-7.
168. Murray CS, Stockton DL, Doherty VR. Thick melanoma: the challenge persists. Br J Dermatol 2005; 152: 104-9.
169. de Vries E, Hontermans S, Jansses-Heijnen MLG et al. Up-to-date survival estimates and historical trends of cutaneous malignant melanoma in the south-east of the Netherlands. Ann Oncol 2007; 18: 1110-6.
170. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: II. Sun exposure. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 45-60.
171. Bataille V, Sasieni P, Grulich A et al. Solar keratoses: a risk factor for melanoma but negative association with melanocytic naevi. Int J Cancer 1998; 78: 8-12.
172. Whiteman DC, Watt P, Purdie DM et al. Melanocytic nevi, solar keratoses, and divergent pathways to cutaneous melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95:806-12.
173. Green A, Autier P, Boniol M et al. The association of use of sunbeds with cutaneous malignant melanoma and other skin cancers: a systematic review. Int J Cancer 2007; 120: 1116-22.
174. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: I. Common and atypical naevi. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 28-44.
175. Easton D, Cox G, Macdonald A, Ponder B. Genetic susceptibility to naevi-a twin study. Br J Cancer 1991; 64: 1164-7.
176. Wachsmuth RC, Turner F, Barrett JH et al. The effect of sun exposure in determining nevus density in UK adolescent twins. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 124:56-62.
177. Falchi M, Bataille V, Hayward NK et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants at 9p21 and 22q13 associated with development of cutaneous nevi. Nat Genet 2009.
178. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: III. Family history, actinic damage and phenotypic factors. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 2040-59.
179. Rees JL. Genetics of hair and skin color. Annu Rev Genet 2003; 37: 67-90.
180. Bastiaens M, ter Huurne J, Gruis N et al. The melanocortin-1-receptor gene is the major freckle gene. Hum Mol Genet 2001; 10: 1701-8.
181. Hemminki K, Zhang H, Czene K. Familial and attributable risks in cutaneous melanoma: effects of proband and age. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 120: 217-23.
182. Kamb A. Role of a cell cycle regulator in hereditary and sporadic cancer. Cold Spring Harb Symp 1994; 59: 39-47.
183. Soufir N, Avril M, Chompret A et al. Prevalence of p16 and CDK4 germline mutations in 48 melanoma-prone families in France. Hum Molec Genet 1998; 7:209-16.
184. Zuo L, Weger J, Yang Q et al. Germline mutations in the p16INK4a binding domain of CDK4 in familial melanoma. Nature Genetics 1996; 12: 97-9.
185. Ciotti P, Struewing JP, Mantelli M. A single genetic origin for the G101W CD2KN2A mutation in 20 melanoma-prone families. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 67:311-9.
186. Gruis N, Sandkuijl L, Van der Velden P et al. CDKN2 explains part of the clinical phenotype in Dutch familial multiple-mole melanoma (FAMMM) syndrome families. Melanoma Res 1995; 5: 169-77.
187. Pollock PM, Spurr N, Bishop T et al. Haplotype analysis of two recurrent CDKN2A mutations in 10 melanoma families: evidence for common founders and independent mutations. Hum Mutat 1998; 11: 424-31.
188. Borg A, Johannsson U, Johannsson O et al. Novel germline p16 mutation in familial malignant melanoma in southern Sweden. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 2497-500.
189. Goldstein AM, Chan M, Harland M et al. Features associated with germline CDKN2A mutations: a GenoMEL study of melanoma-prone families from three continents. J Med Genet 2007; 44: 99-106.
190. Melanoma Genetics Consortium. www.genomel.org
191. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Goldstein AM et al. Geographical variation in the penetrance of CDKN2A mutations for melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94:894-903.
192. Begg CB, Orlow I, Hummer AJ et al. Lifetime risk of melanoma in CDKN2A mutation carriers in a population-based sample. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:1507-15.
193. Bale SJ, Dracopoli NC, Tucker MA et al. Mapping the gene for hereditary cutaneous malignant melanoma-dysplastic nevus to chromosome 1p. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 1367-72.
194. Gillanders E, Hank Juo SH, Holland EA et al. Localization of a novel melanoma susceptibility locus to 1p22. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 73: 301-13.
195. Kefford R, Bishop JN, Tucker M et al. Genetic testing for melanoma. Lancet Oncol 2002; 3: 653-4.
196. Otsuki M, Tashiro M. 4. Chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer, lifestylerelated diseases. Internal Med (Tokyo, Japan) 2007; 46: 109-13.
197. Welsch T, Kleeff J, Seitz HK et al. Update on pancreatic cancer and alcohol-associated risk. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 21 (Suppl. 3): S69-75.
198. Newton Bishop JA, Bataille V, Pinney E, Bishop DT. Family studies in melanoma: identification of the atypical mole syndrome (AMS) phenotype. Melanoma Res 1994; 4: 199-206.
199. MacKie RM, Freudenberger T, Aitchison TC. Personal risk-factor chart for cutaneous melanoma. Lancet 1989; 2: 487-90.
200. Whiteman DC, Green AC. A risk prediction tool for melanoma? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14: 761-3.
201. Holick MF. High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin Proc 2006; 81: 353-73.
202. Chen TC, Holick MF. Vitamin D and prostate cancer prevention and treatment. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2003; 14: 423-30.
203. Holick MF. Vitamin D: Its role in cancer prevention and treatment. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2006; 92: 49-59.
204. Wolpowitz D, Gilchrest BA. The vitamin D questions: how much do you need and how should you get it? J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 54: 301-17.
205. Clark WH Jr, From L, Bernardino EA, Mihm MC. The histogenesis and biologic behavior of primary human malignant melanomas of the skin. Cancer Res 1969; 29: 705-27.
206. Reed RJ, Ichinose H, Clark WH Jr, Mihm MC Jr. Common and uncommon melanocytic nevi and borderline melanomas. Semin Oncol 1975; 2: 119-47.
207. Cox NH, Aitchison TC, Sirel JM, MacKie RM. Comparison between lentigo maligna melanoma and other histogenetic types of malignant melanoma of the head and neck. Scottish Melanoma Group. Br J Cancer 1996; 73: 940-4.
208. Clark WH Jr, Elder DE, Guerry DT et al. Model predicting survival in stage I melanoma based on tumor progression. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989; 81: 1893-904.
209. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
210. Bishop JN, Bataille V, Gavin A et al. The prevention, diagnosis, referral and management of melanoma of the skin: concise guidelines. Clin Med 2007; 7:283-90.
211. DS Medica. Dermoscopy. http://www.dermoscopy.org
212. New Zealand Dermatological Society. Dermoscopy. http://dermnetnz.org/procedures/dermoscopy.html
213. Interactive Medical Media. Dermatology lectures on line. Dermoscopy. http://www.dermlectures.com
214. Elder DE, Murphy GF. Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin. Washington, DC: American Registry of Pathology, in press.
215. Purdue MP, From L, Armstrong BK et al. Etiologic and other factors predicting nevus-associated cutaneous malignant melanoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14: 2015-22.
216. de Wit NJ, van Muijen GN, Ruiter DJ. Immunohistochemistry in melanocytic proliferative lesions. Histopathology 2004; 44: 517-41.
217. Newton Bishop JA, Corrie PG, Evans J et al. UK guidelines for the management of cutaneous melanoma. Br J Plast Surg 2002; 55: 46-54.
218. Veronesi U, Cascinelli N. Narrow excision (1-cm margin). A safe procedure for thin cutaneous melanoma. Arch Surg 1991; 126: 438-41.
219. Thomas JM, Newton-Bishop J, A'Hern R et al. Excision margins in high-risk malignant melanoma. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 757-66.
220. Baumert J, Plewig G, Volkenandt M, Schmid-Wendtner MH. Factors associated with a high tumour thickness in patients with melanoma. Br J Dermatol 2007; 156:938-44.
221. Sugiura M, Colby KA, Mihm MC Jr, Zembowicz A. Low-risk and high-risk histologic features in conjunctival primary acquired melanosis with atypia: Clinicopathologic analysis of 29 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 2007; 31: 185-92.
222. Bataille V, Boyle J, Hungerford JL, Newton JA. Three cases of primary acquired melanosis of the conjunctiva as a manifestation of the atypical mole syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1993; 128: 86-90.
223. Lens MB, Newton-Bishop JA, Boon AP. Desmoplastic malignant melanoma: a systematic review. Br J Dermatol 2005; 152: 673-8.
224. McKenna JK, Florell SR, Goldman GD, Bowen GM. Lentigo maligna/lentigo maligna melanoma: current state of diagnosis and treatment. Dermatol Surg 2006; 32: 493-504.
225. Temple CL, Arlette JP. Mohs micrographic surgery in the treatment of lentigo maligna and melanoma. J Surg Oncol 2006; 94: 287-92.
226. Agarwal-Antal N, Bowen GM, Gerwels JW. Histologic evaluation of lentigo maligna with permanent sections: implications regarding current guidelines. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 47: 743-8.
227. Bub JL, Berg D, Slee A, Odland PB. Management of lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma with staged excision: a 5-year follow-up. Arch Dermatol 2004; 140: 552-8.
228. Rajpar SF, Marsden JR. Imiquimod in the treatment of lentigo maligna. Br J Dermatol 2006; 155: 653-6.
229. Stevens NG, Liff JM, Weiss NS. Plantar melanoma: is the incidence of melanoma of the sole of the foot really higher in blacks than whites? Int J Cancer 1990; 45:691-3.
230. Braun RP, Baran R, Le Gal FA et al. Diagnosis and management of nail pigmentations. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007; 56: 835-47.
231. Schmid-Wendtner MH, Berking C, Baumert J et al. Cutaneous melanoma in childhood and adolescence: an analysis of 36 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 46: 874-9.
232. Boddie A, Smith J, McBride C. Malignant melanoma in children and young adults. Southern Med J 1978; 71: 1074-8.
233. Conti EM, Cercato MC, Gatta G et al. Childhood melanoma in Europe since 1978: a population-based survival study. Eur J Cancer 2001; 37: 780-4.
234. Milton GW, Shaw HM, Thompson JF, McCarthy WH. Cutaneous melanoma in childhood: incidence and prognosis. Australas J Dermatol 1997; 38 (Suppl. 1): S44-8.
235. Parkin D, Whelan S, Ferlay J et al. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. IARC Scientific Publications No 143, Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer II, 1997.
236. Stern JB, Peck GL, Haupt HM et al. Malignant melanoma in xeroderma pigmentosum: arch for a precursor lesion. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 28: 591-4.
237. Van Der Spek PJ, Smit EME, Beverloo HB et al. Chromosomal localization of three repair genes: the xeroderma pigmentosum group c gene and two human homologs of yeast RAD23. Genomics 1994; 23: 651-8.
238. Traboulsi EI, Zimmerman LE, Manz HJ. Cutaneous malignant melanoma in survivors of heritable retinoblastoma. Arch Ophthalmology 1988; 106:1059-61.
239. Roth ME, Grant-Kels JM, Kuhn MK et al. Melanoma in children. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990; 22: 265-74.
240. Itoh T, Fujiwara Y, Ono T, Yamaizumi M. UV syndrome, a new general category of photosensitive disorder with defective DNA repair, is distinct from xeroderma pigmentosum variant and rodent complementation group 1. Am J Hum Genet 1995; 56: 1267-76.
241. Ceballos P, Ruiz-Maldonado R, Mihm M. Melanoma in children. New Eng J Med 1995; 332: 656-62.
242. Rao B, Hayes F, Pratt C et al. Malignant melanoma in children: its management and prognosis. J Pediatric Surg 1990; 25: 198-203.
243. Williams M, Pennella R. Melanoma, melanocytic nevi and other risk factors in children. J Pediatrics 1994; 124: 833-45.
244. Youl P, Aitken J, Hayward N et al. Melanoma in adolescents: a case-control study of risk factors in Queensland, Australia. Int J Cancer 2002; 98: 92-8.
245. Scov-Jensen T, Hastrup J, Lambrethsen E. Malignant melanoma in children. Cancer 1966; 19: 620-6.
246. Breslow A. Prognostic factors in the treatment of cutaneous melanoma. J Cutan Pathol 1979; 6: 208-12.
247. Balch CM, Buzaid AC, Soong SJ et al. Final version of the American Joint Committee on Cancer staging system for cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19:3635-48.
248. Gimotty PA, Botbyl J, Soong SJ, Guerry D. A population-based validation of the American Joint Committee on Cancer melanoma staging system. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 8065-75.
249. Gimotty PA, Elder DE, Fraker DL et al. Identification of high-risk patients among those diagnosed with thin cutaneous melanomas. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 1129-34.
250. Gimotty PA, Guerry D, Ming ME et al. Thin primary cutaneous malignant melanoma: a prognostic tree for 10-year metastasis is more accurate than American Joint Committee on Cancer staging. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 3668-76.
251. Gimotty PA, Van Belle P, Elder DE et al. Biologic and prognostic significance of dermal Ki67 expression, mitoses, and tumorigenicity in thin invasive cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 8048-56.
252. Elder D, Murphy G. Malignant tumors (melanomas and related lesions). Atlas of Tumor Pathology: Melanocytic Tumors of the Skin 2 (third series). Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 1991: 103-205.
253. Newton Bishop JA, Corrie PG, Evans J et al. UK guidelines for the management of cutaneous melanoma. Br J Plast Surg 2002; 55: 46-54.
254. Sober AJ, Chuang TY, Duvic M et al. Guidelines of care for primary cutaneous melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 45: 579-86.
255. Kroon BB, Bergman W, Coebergh JW, Ruiter DJ. Consensus on the management of malignant melanoma of the skin in The Netherlands. Dutch Melanoma Working Party. Melanoma Res 1999; 9: 207-12.
256. Wang TS, Johnson TM, Cascade PN et al. Evaluation of staging chest radiographs and serum lactate dehydrogenase for localized melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004; 51: 399-405.
257. Garbe C, Leiter U, Ellwanger U et al. Diagnostic value and prognostic significance of protein S-100beta, melanoma-inhibitory activity, and tyrosinase/MART-1 reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in the follow-up of high-risk melanoma patients. Cancer 2003; 97: 1737-45.
258. Krahn G, Kaskel P, Sander S et al. S100 beta is a more reliable tumor marker in peripheral blood for patients with newly occurred melanoma metastases compared with MIA, albumin and lactate-dehydrogenase. Anticancer Res 2001; 21:1311-6.
259. Mohammed MQ, Abraha HD, Sherwood RA et al. Serum S100beta protein as a marker of disease activity in patients with malignant melanoma. Med Oncol (Northwood, London, England) 2001; 18: 109-20.
260. Balch CM, Soong SJ, Bartolucci AA et al. Efficacy of an elective regional lymph node dissection of 1 to 4 mm thick melanomas for patients 60 years of age and younger. Ann Surg 1996; 224: 255-63; discussion 263-6.
261. Cascinelli N, Morabito A, Santinami M et al. Immediate or delayed dissection of regional nodes in patients with melanoma of the trunk: a randomised trial. WHO Melanoma Programme. Lancet 1998; 351: 793-6.
262. Veronesi U. Delayed node dissection in stage one malignant melanoma: justification and advantages. Cancer Invest 1987; 5: 47-53.
263. Lens MB, Dawes M, Goodacre T, Newton-Bishop JA. Elective lymph node dissection in patients with melanoma: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Surg 2002; 137: 458-61.
264. Morton DL, Wen DR, Wong JH et al. Technical details of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Arch Surg 1992; 127: 392-9.
265. Morton DL, Thompson JF, Cochran AJ et al. Sentinel-node biopsy or nodal observation in melanoma. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1307-17.
266. Cook MG, Green MA, Anderson B et al. The development of optimal pathological assessment of sentinel lymph nodes for melanoma. J Pathol 2003; 200:314-9.
267. Dewar DJ, Newell B, Green MA et al. The microanatomic location of metastatic melanoma in sentinel lymph nodes predicts nonsentinel lymph node involvement. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 3345-9.
268. Lens MB, Dawes M, Newton-Bishop JA, Goodacre T. Tumour thickness as a predictor of occult lymph node metastases in patients with stage I and II melanoma undergoing sentinel lymph node biopsy. Br J Surg 2002; 89: 1223-7.
269. Cherpelis BS, Haddad F, Messina J et al. Sentinel lymph node micrometastasis and other histologic factors that predict outcome in patients with thicker melanomas. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 44: 762-6.
270. Mar MV, Miller SA, Kim EE, Macapinlac HA. Evaluation and localization of lymphatic drainage and sentinel lymph nodes in patients with head and neck melanomas by hybrid SPECT/CT lymphoscintigraphic imaging. J Nucl Med Technol 2007; 35: 10-6; quiz 17-20.
271. Doting EH, de Vries M, Plukker JT et al. Does sentinel lymph node biopsy in cutaneous head and neck melanoma alter disease outcome? J Surg Oncol 2006; 93: 564-70.
272. Saiag P, Bernard M, Beauchet A et al. Ultrasonography using simple diagnostic criteria vs palpation for the detection of regional lymph node metastases of melanoma. Arch Dermatol 2005; 141: 183-9.
273. Badgwell B, Xing Y, Gershenwald JE et al. Pelvic lymph node dissection is beneficial in subsets of patients with node-positive melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2007; 14:2867-75.
274. Eggermont AM. Current status of interferon-alpha in the treatment of melanoma. Cancer Chemother Biol Response Modif 2005; 22: 729-37.
275. Gogas H, Ioannovich J, Dafni U et al. Prognostic significance of autoimmunity during treatment of melanoma with interferon. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:709-18.
276. Eggermont AM. Immunotherapy: Vaccine trials in melanoma-time for reflection. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2009; 6: 256-8.
277. Buzaid AC. Biochemotherapy for advanced melanoma. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2002; 44: 103-8.
278. Sasse AD, Sasse EC, Clark LG et al. Chemoimmunotherapy versus chemotherapy for metastatic malignant melanoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev: CD005413, 2007.
279. Quirbt I, Verma S, Petrella T et al. Temozolomide for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Curr Oncol 2007; 14: 27-33.
280. McDermott P, Lawson DS, Walczak R Jr et al. An isolated limb infusion technique: a guide for the perfusionist. J Extra-corp Technol 2005; 37: 396-9.
281. Rossi CR, Foletto M, Pilati P et al. Isolated limb perfusion in locally advanced cutaneous melanoma. Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 400-9.
282. Lens MB, Dawes M. Isolated limb perfusion with melphalan in the treatment of malignant melanoma of the extremities: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Oncol 2003; 4: 359-64.
283. Knorr C, Meyer T, Janssen T et al. Hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion (HILP) in malignant melanoma. Experience with 101 patients. Eur J Surg Oncol 2006; 32:224-7.
284. Lejeune FJ, Eggermont AM. Hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion with tumor necrosis factor is a useful therapy for advanced melanoma of the limbs. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 1449-50; author reply 1450-1.
285. Grunhagen DJ, de Wilt JH, van Geel AN, Eggermont AM. Isolated limb perfusion for melanoma patients-a review of its indications and the role of tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Eur J Surg Oncol 2006; 32: 371-80.
286. Noorda EM, Vrouenraets BC, Nieweg OE et al. Repeat isolated limb perfusion with TNFalpha and melphalan for recurrent limb melanoma after failure of previous perfusion. Eur J Surg Oncol 2006; 32: 318-24.
287. Bonenkamp JJ, Thompson JF, de Wilt JH et al. Isolated limb infusion with fotemustine after dacarbazine chemosensitisation for inoperable loco-regional melanoma recurrence. Eur J Surg Oncol 2004; 30: 1107-12.
288. Thompson JF, Kam PC, Waugh RC, Harman CR. Isolated limb infusion with cytotoxic agents: a simple alternative to isolated limb perfusion. Semin Surg Oncol 1998; 14: 238-47.
289. Lindner P, Doubrovsky A, Kam PC, Thompson JF. Prognostic factors after isolated limb infusion with cytotoxic agents for melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2002; 9: 127-36.
290. Koops HS, Vaglini M, Suciu S et al. Prophylactic isolated limb perfusion for localized, high-risk limb melanoma: results of a multicenter randomized phase III tri. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Malignant Melanoma Cooperative Group Protocol 18832, the World Health Organization Melanoma Program Trial 15, and the North American Perfusion Group Southwest Oncology Group-8593. J Clin Oncol 1998; 16:2906-12.
291. Hofmann MA, Coll SH, Kuchler I et al. Prognostic factors and impact of treatment in melanoma brain metastases: better prognosis for women? Dermatology 2007; 215: 10-6.
292. Peacock KH, Lesser GJ. Current therapeutic approaches in patients with brain metastases. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2006; 7: 479-89.
293. Bafaloukos D, Gogas H. The treatment of brain metastases in melanoma patients. Cancer Treat Rev 2004; 30: 515-20.
294. Mathieu D, Kondziolka D, Cooper PB et al. Gamma knife radiosurgery in the management of malignant melanoma brain metastases. Neurosurgery 2007; 60:471-81; discussion 481-2.
295. Stevens G, McKay MJ. Dispelling the myths surrounding radiotherapy for treatment of cutaneous melanoma. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7: 575-83.
296. O'Brien CJ, Petersen-Schaefer K, Stevens GN et al. Adjuvant radiotherapy following neck dissection and parotidectomy for metastatic malignant melanoma. Head Neck 1997; 19: 589-94.
297. Pack GT, Scharnagel IM. The prognosis for malignant melanoma in the pregnant woman. Cancer 1951; 4: 324-34.
298. O'Meara AT, Cress R, Xing G et al. Malignant melanoma in pregnancy. A population- based evaluation. Cancer 2005; 103: 1217-26.
299. Lens MB, Rosdahl I, Ahlbom A et al. Effect of pregnancy on survival in women with cutaneous malignant melanoma. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 4369-75.
300. Alexander A, Samlowski WE, Grossman D et al. Metastatic melanoma in pregnancy: risk of transplacental metastases in the infant. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21:2179-86.
301. Karagas MR, Stukel TA, Dykes J et al. A pooled analysis of 10 case-control studies of melanoma and oral contraceptive use. Br J Cancer 2002; 86: 1085-92.
302. Durvasula R, Ahmed SM, Vashisht A, Studd JW. Hormone replacement therapy and malignant melanoma: to prescribe or not to prescribe? Climacteric 2002; 5:197-200.