ESCMID and ECMM joint clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis 2013

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 20, Issue S3, 2014, Pages 5-26

  Cornely, O A ^a   Arikan Akdagli, S ^b   Dannaoui, E ^c   Groll, A H ^d   Lagrou, K ^e   Chakrabarti, A ^f   Lanternier, F ^g,h   Pagano, L ⁱ   Skiada, A ^j   Akova, M ^b   Arendrup, M C ^k   Boekhout, T ^l,m,n   Chowdhary, A ^o   Cuenca Estrella, M ^p   Freiberger, T ^q,r   Guinea, J ^s   Guarro, J ^t   de Hoog, S ^l   Hope, W ^u   Johnson, E ^v   Kathuria, S ^o   Lackner, M ^w   Lass Florl C ^w   Lortholary, O ^g   Meis, J F ^x,y   Meletiadis, J ^z   Munoz P ^s   Richardson, M ^aa,ab   Roilides, E ^ac   Tortorano, A M ^ad   Ullmann, A J ^ae   van Diepeningen, A ^l   Verweij, P ^y   Petrikkos, G ^j   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^b HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^c Hôpital Européen   (France)

^d UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL MÜNSTER   (Germany)

^e UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^f POSTGRADUATE INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH   (India)

^g INSTITUT PASTEUR   (France)

^h HÔPITAL NECKER ENFANTS MALADES   (France)

ⁱ CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

^j UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^k STATENS SERUM INSTITUT   (Denmark)

^l CBS KNAW FUNGAL BIODIVERSITY CENTRE   (Netherlands)

^m UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER UTRECHT   (Netherlands)

ⁿ SECOND MILITARY MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

^o UNIVERSITY OF DELHI   (India)

^p INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III   (Spain)

^q Centre for Cardiovascular Surgery and Transplantation   (Czech Republic)

^r MASARYK UNIVERSITY   (Czech Republic)

^s HOSPITAL GENERAL UNIVERSITARIO GREGORIO MARAÑÓN   (Spain)

^t UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI   (Spain)

^u UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^v NHS BLOOD AND TRANSPLANT   (United Kingdom)

^w INNSBRUCK MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Austria)

^x CANISIUS WILHELMINA HOSPITAL   (Netherlands)

^y RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^z NATIONAL AND KAPODISTRIAN UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^aa MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^ab UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^ac ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI   (Greece)

^ad UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^ae UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

more..

Author keywords

Diagnosis; Fungal infection; Guideline; Mucormycosis; Mycosis; Prophylaxis; Treatment; Zygomycosis

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B DEOXYCHOLATE; AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; DEFERASIROX; GLUCOCORTICOID; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; ITRACONAZOLE; POSACONAZOLE;

ANTIFUNGAL SUSCEPTIBILITY; ARTICLE; ASPERGILLOSIS; CANCER PATIENT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEBRIDEMENT; DIABETIC PATIENT; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; FUNGUS CULTURE; FUNGUS IDENTIFICATION; HEMATOLOGIC MALIGNANCY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPERBARIC OXYGEN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; KETOACIDOSIS; LOW DRUG DOSE; MICROSCOPY; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MUCORMYCOSIS; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SALVAGE THERAPY; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

DIAGNOSIS; FUNGAL INFECTION; GUIDELINE; MUCORMYCOSIS; MYCOSIS; PROPHYLAXIS; TREATMENT; ZYGOMYCOSIS;

ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS; HUMANS; MUCORMYCOSIS;

EID: 84888040417     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: 14690691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12371     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Christopeit M, Lindner A, Surov A et al. Right flank pain and high fever in a neutropenic patient with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Mycoses 2013; 56: 90-92.
2. Neblett Fanfair R, Benedict K, Bos J et al. Necrotizing cutaneous mucormycosis after a tornado in Joplin, Missouri, in 2011. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 2214-2225.
3. Roden MM, Zaoutis TE, Buchanan WL et al. Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 634-653.
4. Ajello L, Dean DF, Irwin RS. The zygomycete Saksenaea vasiformis as a pathogen of humans with a critical review of the etiology of zygomycosis. Mycologia 1976; 68: 52-62.
5. Gomes MZ, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP. Mucormycosis caused by unusual mucormycetes, non-Rhizopus, -Mucor, and -Lichtheimia species. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24: 411-445.
6. Kwon-Chung KJ. Taxonomy of fungi causing mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis (zygomycosis) and nomenclature of the disease: molecular mycologic perspectives. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl. 1): S8-S15.
7. Skiada A, Pagano L, Groll A et al. Zygomycosis in Europe: analysis of 230 cases accrued by the registry of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) Working Group on Zygomycosis between 2005 and 2007. Clin Microbiol Infect 2011; 17: 1859-1867.
8. Chakrabarti A, Marak RS, Shivaprakash MR et al. Cavitary pulmonary zygomycosis caused by Rhizopus homothallicus. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 1965-1969.
9. Chugh KS, Sakhuja V, Gupta KL et al. Renal mucormycosis: computerized tomographic findings and their diagnostic significance. Am J Kidney Dis 1993; 22: 393-397.
10. Sharma R, Shivanand G, Kumar R et al. Isolated renal mucormycosis: an unusual cause of acute renal infarction in a boy with aplastic anaemia. Br J Radiol 2006; 79: e19-e21.
11. Marak RS, Misra R, Ansari MS et al. Successful medical management of renal zygomycosis: a summary of two cases and a review of the Indian literature. Med Mycol 2010; 48: 1088-1095.
12. Hemashettar BM, Patil RN, O'Donnell K, Chaturvedi V, Ren P, Padhye AA. Chronic rhinofacial mucormycosis caused by Mucor irregularis (Rhizomucor variabilis) in India. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49: 2372-2375.
13. Li DM, Lun LD. Mucor irregularis infection and lethal midline granuloma: a case report and review of published literature. Mycopathologia 2012; 174: 429-439.
14. Lu QY, Yu J, Gao LJ, Zheng G, Li RY. [Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of invasive fungal disease]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2012; 92: 822-826.
15. Lu XL, Liu ZH, Shen YN et al. Primary cutaneous zygomycosis caused by Rhizomucor variabilis: a new endemic zygomycosis? A case report and review of 6 cases reported from China. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: e39-e43.
16. Xia ZK, Wang WL, Yang RY. Slowly progressive cutaneous, rhinofacial, and pulmonary mucormycosis caused by Mucor irregularis in an immunocompetent woman. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: 993-995.
17. Petrikkos G, Skiada A, Lortholary O, Roilides E, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP. Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl. 1): S23-S34.
18. Paltauf A. Mycosis mucorina. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der menschlichen Fadenpilzerkrankungen. Archiv für pathologische Anatomie 1885; 102: 543-564.
19. Bitar D, Van Cauteren D, Lanternier F et al. Increasing incidence of zygomycosis (mucormycosis), France, 1997-2006. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1395-1401.
20. Rees JR, Pinner RW, Hajjeh RA, Brandt ME, Reingold AL. The epidemiological features of invasive mycotic infections in the San Francisco Bay area, 1992-1993: results of population-based laboratory active surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 1138-1147.
21. Torres-Narbona M, Guinea J, Martinez-Alarcon J, Pelaez T, Bouza E. In vitro activities of amphotericin B, caspofungin, itraconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole against 45 clinical isolates of zygomycetes: comparison of CLSI M38-A, Sensititre YeastOne, and the Etest. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 1126-1129.
22. Pagano L, Girmenia C, Mele L et al. Infections caused by filamentous fungi in patients with hematologic malignancies. A report of 391 cases by GIMEMA Infection Program. Haematologica 2001; 86: 862-870.
23. Lewis RE, Cahyame-Zuniga L, Leventakos K et al. Epidemiology and sites of involvement of invasive fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancies: a 20-year autopsy study. Mycoses 2013; 56: 638-645.
24. Lewis RE, Georgiadou SP, Sampsonas F, Chamilos G, Kontoyiannis DP. Risk factors for early mortality in haematological malignancy patients with pulmonary mucormycosis. Mycoses 2013. doi: 10.1111/myc.12101. [Epub ahead of print].
25. Lanternier F, Dannaoui E, Morizot G et al. A global analysis of mucormycosis in France: the RetroZygo Study (2005-2007). Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl. 1): S35-S43.
26. Rüping MJ, Heinz WJ, Kindo AJ et al. Forty-one recent cases of invasive zygomycosis from a global clinical registry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65: 296-302.
27. Chamilos G, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP. Delaying amphotericin B-based frontline therapy significantly increases mortality among patients with hematologic malignancy who have zygomycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 503-509.
28. Ullmann AJ, Cornely OA, Donnelly JP et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: developing European guidelines in clinical microbiology and infectious diseases. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18 (Suppl. 7): 1-8.
29. Hamer EC, Moore CB, Denning DW. Comparison of two fluorescent whiteners, Calcofluor and Blankophor, for the detection of fungal elements in clinical specimens in the diagnostic laboratory. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006; 12: 181-184.
30. Lass-Florl C, Resch G, Nachbaur D et al. The value of computed tomography-guided percutaneous lung biopsy for diagnosis of invasive fungal infection in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: e101-e104.
31. McDermott NE, Barrett J, Hipp J et al. Successful treatment of periodontal mucormycosis: report of a case and literature review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2010; 109: e64-e69.
32. Ribes JA, Vanover-Sams CL, Baker DJ. Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 236-301.
33. Larone DH. Medically important fungi: a guide to identification. Washington DC: ASM Press, 2011.
34. Garcia LS. Clinical microbiology procedures handbook. Washington DC: ASM Press, 2010.
35. Kontoyiannis DP, Chamilos G, Hassan SA, Lewis RE, Albert ND, Tarrand JJ. Increased culture recovery of Zygomycetes under physiologic temperature conditions. Am J Clin Pathol 2007; 127: 208-212.
36. Frater JL, Hall GS, Procop GW. Histologic features of zygomycosis: emphasis on perineural invasion and fungal morphology. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2001; 125: 375-378.
37. Ben-Ami R, Luna M, Lewis RE, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP. A clinicopathological study of pulmonary mucormycosis in cancer patients: extensive angioinvasion but limited inflammatory response. J Infect 2009; 59: 134-138.
38. Chakrabarti A, Chatterjee SS, Das A et al. Invasive zygomycosis in India: experience in a tertiary care hospital. Postgrad Med J 2009; 85: 573-581.
39. Jensen HE, Salonen J, Ekfors TO. The use of immunohistochemistry to improve sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of systemic mycoses in patients with haematological malignancies. J Pathol 1997; 181: 100-105.
40. Jha AK, Bansal D, Chakrabarti A, Shivaprakash MR, Trehan A, Marwaha RK. Serum galactomannan assay for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in children with haematological malignancies. Mycoses 2013; 56: 442-448.
41. Sinko J, Csomor J, Nikolova R et al. Invasive fungal disease in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: an autopsy-driven survey. Transpl Infect Dis 2008; 10: 106-109.
42. Maertens J, Glasmacher A, Selleslag D et al. Evaluation of serum sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for circulating galactomannan during caspofungin therapy: results from the caspofungin invasive aspergillosis study. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: e9-e14.
43. Pang KA, Godet C, Fekkar A et al. Breakthrough invasive mould infections in patients treated with caspofungin. J Infect 2012; 64: 424-429.
44. Odabasi Z, Paetznick VL, Rodriguez JR, Chen E, McGinnis MR, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Differences in β-glucan levels in culture supernatants of a variety of fungi. Med Mycol 2006; 44: 267-272.
45. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Alexander BD, Kett DH et al. Multicenter clinical evaluation of the (1→3) β-d-glucan assay as an aid to diagnosis of fungal infections in humans. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 654-659.
46. Potenza L, Vallerini D, Barozzi P et al. Mucorales-specific T cells emerge in the course of invasive mucormycosis and may be used as a surrogate diagnostic marker in high-risk patients. Blood 2011; 118: 5416-5419.
47. Rickerts V, Mousset S, Lambrecht E et al. Comparison of histopathological analysis, culture, and polymerase chain reaction assays to detect invasive mold infections from biopsy specimens. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 1078-1083.
48. Hammond SP, Bialek R, Milner DA, Petschnigg EM, Baden LR, Marty FM. Molecular methods to improve diagnosis and identification of mucormycosis. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49: 2151-2153.
49. Bialek R, Konrad F, Kern J et al. PCR based identification and discrimination of agents of mucormycosis and aspergillosis in paraffin wax embedded tissue. J Clin Pathol 2005; 58: 1180-1184.
50. Buitrago MJ, Aguado JM, Ballen A et al. Efficacy of DNA amplification in tissue biopsy samples to improve the detection of invasive fungal disease. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19: E271-E277.
51. Dannaoui E, Schwarz P, Slany M et al. Molecular detection and identification of zygomycetes species from paraffin-embedded tissues in a murine model of disseminated zygomycosis: a collaborative European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Fungal Infection Study Group (EFISG) evaluation. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 2043-2046.
52. Kasai M, Harrington SM, Francesconi A et al. Detection of a molecular biomarker for zygomycetes by quantitative PCR assays of plasma, bronchoalveolar lavage, and lung tissue in a rabbit model of experimental pulmonary zygomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 3690-3702.
53. Schwarz P, Lortholary O, Dromer F, Dannaoui E. Carbon assimilation profiles as a tool for identification of zygomycetes. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45: 1433-1439.
54. Petraitis V, Petraitiene R, Antachopoulos C et al. Increased virulence of Cunninghamella bertholletiae in experimental pulmonary mucormycosis: correlation with circulating molecular biomarkers, sporangiospore germination and hyphal metabolism. Med Mycol 2013; 51: 72-82.
55. Khan ZU, Ahmad S, Brazda A, Chandy R. Mucor circinelloides as a cause of invasive maxillofacial zygomycosis: an emerging dimorphic pathogen with reduced susceptibility to posaconazole. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 1244-1248.
56. Salas V, Pastor FJ, Calvo E et al. In vitro and in vivo activities of posaconazole and amphotericin B in a murine invasive infection by Mucor circinelloides: poor efficacy of posaconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56: 2246-2250.
57. Lanternier F, Poiree S, Elie C et al. Pilot prospective study of high dose (10 mg/kg/day) liposomal amphotericin B for the initial treatment of mucormycosis: 'AMBIZYGO' Trial (M-1707). 52nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Francisco, 2012.
58. Rammaert B, Lanternier F, Zahar JR et al. Healthcare-associated mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (Suppl. 1): S44-S54.
59. Garcia-Hermoso D, Hoinard D, Gantier JC, Grenouillet F, Dromer F, Dannaoui E. Molecular and phenotypic evaluation of Lichtheimia corymbifera (formerly Absidia corymbifera) complex isolates associated with human mucormycosis: rehabilitation of L. ramosa. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 3862-3870.
60. Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Hoffmann K, de Hoog GS et al. Species recognition and clinical relevance of the zygomycetous genus Lichtheimia (syn. Absidia pro parte, Mycocladus). J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 2154-2170.
61. Alvarez E, Garcia-Hermoso D, Sutton DA et al. Molecular phylogeny and proposal of two new species of the emerging pathogenic fungus Saksenaea. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 4410-4416.
62. Alvarez E, Stchigel AM, Cano J et al. Molecular phylogenetic diversity of the emerging mucoralean fungus Apophysomyces: proposal of three new species. Rev Iberoam Micol 2010; 27: 80-89.
63. Padhye AA, Ajello L. Simple method of inducing sporulation by Apophysomyces elegans and Saksenaea vasiformis. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 1861-1863.
64. Kontoyiannis DP, Lionakis MS, Lewis RE et al. Zygomycosis in a tertiary-care cancer center in the era of Aspergillus-active antifungal therapy: a case-control observational study of 27 recent cases. J Infect Dis 2005; 191: 1350-1360.
65. Alvarez E, Sutton DA, Cano J et al. Spectrum of zygomycete species identified in clinically significant specimens in the United States. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 1650-1656.
66. Schwarz P, Bretagne S, Gantier JC et al. Molecular identification of Zygomycetes from culture and experimentally infected tissues. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 340-349.
67. Chakrabarti A, Ghosh A, Prasad GS et al. Apophysomyces elegans: an emerging zygomycete in India. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 783-788.
68. Nagao K, Ota T, Tanikawa A et al. Genetic identification and detection of human pathogenic Rhizopus species, a major mucormycosis agent, by multiplex PCR based on internal transcribed spacer region of rRNA gene. J Dermatol Sci 2005; 39: 23-31.
69. CLSI. Interpretive criteria for bacteria and fungi identification by DNA target sequencing; Approved Guideline MM-18A. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 2008.
70. Balajee SA, Borman AM, Brandt ME et al. Sequence-based identification of Aspergillus, Fusarium, and mucorales species in the clinical mycology laboratory: where are we and where should we go from here? J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 877-884.
71. Voigt K, Cigelnik E, O'Donnell K. Phylogeny and PCR identification of clinically important Zygomycetes based on nuclear ribosomal-DNA sequence data. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 3957-3964.
72. Machouart M, Larche J, Burton K et al. Genetic identification of the main opportunistic mucorales by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 805-810.
73. Hall L, Wohlfiel S, Roberts GD. Experience with the MicroSeq D2 large-subunit ribosomal DNA sequencing kit for identification of filamentous fungi encountered in the clinical laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 622-626.
74. Hata DJ, Buckwalter SP, Pritt BS, Roberts GD, Wengenack NL. Real-time PCR method for detection of zygomycetes. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 2353-2358.
75. Nyilasi I, Papp T, Csernetics A, Krizsan K, Nagy E, Vagvolgyi C. High-affinity iron permease (FTR1) gene sequence-based molecular identification of clinically important Zygomycetes. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14: 393-397.
76. Cassagne C, Ranque S, Normand AC et al. Mould routine identification in the clinical laboratory by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. PLoS ONE 2011; 6: e28425.
77. De Carolis E, Posteraro B, Lass-Florl C et al. Species identification of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Mucorales with direct surface analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18: 475-484.
78. Schrodl W, Heydel T, Schwartze VU et al. Direct analysis and identification of pathogenic Lichtheimia species by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight analyzer-mediated mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 419-427.
79. CLSI. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of filamentous fungi. CLSI Document M38-A2. Wayne, PA: CLSI, 2008.
80. Rodriquez Tudela JL, Donnelly JP, Arendrup MC et al. EUCAST Technical Note on the method for the determination of broth dilution minimum inhibitory concentrations of antifungal agents for conidia-forming moulds. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14: 982-984.
81. Antachopoulos C, Meletiadis J, Roilides E, Sein T, Walsh TJ. Rapid susceptibility testing of medically important zygomycetes by XTT assay. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 553-560.
82. Spreghini E, Orlando F, Giannini D, Barchiesi F. In vitro and in vivo activities of posaconazole against zygomycetes with various degrees of susceptibility. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65: 2158-2163.
83. Chakrabarti A, Shivaprakash MR, Curfs-Breuker I, Baghela A, Klaassen CH, Meis JF. Apophysomyces elegans: epidemiology, amplified fragment length polymorphism typing, and in vitro antifungal susceptibility pattern. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 4580-4585.
84. Rodriguez MM, Pastor FJ, Calvo E, Salas V, Sutton DA, Guarro J. Correlation of in vitro activity, serum levels, and in vivo efficacy of posaconazole against Rhizopus microsporus in a murine disseminated infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 5022-5025.
85. Rodriguez MM, Pastor FJ, Sutton DA et al. Correlation between in vitro activity of posaconazole and in vivo efficacy against Rhizopus oryzae infection in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54: 1665-1669.
86. Sun QN, Fothergill AW, McCarthy DI, Rinaldi MG, Graybill JR. In vitro activities of posaconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, amphotericin B, and fluconazole against 37 clinical isolates of zygomycetes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 1581-1582.
87. Almyroudis NG, Sutton DA, Fothergill AW, Rinaldi MG, Kusne S. In vitro susceptibilities of 217 clinical isolates of zygomycetes to conventional and new antifungal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 2587-2590.
88. Dannaoui E, Meletiadis J, Mouton JW, Meis JF, Verweij PE. In vitro susceptibilities of zygomycetes to conventional and new antifungals. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51: 45-52.
89. Arikan S, Sancak B, Alp S, Hascelik G, McNicholas P. Comparative in vitro activities of posaconazole, voriconazole, itraconazole, and amphotericin B against Aspergillus and Rhizopus, and synergy testing for Rhizopus. Med Mycol 2008; 46: 567-573.
90. Vitale RG, de Hoog GS, Schwarz P et al. Antifungal susceptibility and phylogeny of opportunistic members of the order Mucorales. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 66-75.
91. Drogari-Apiranthitou M, Mantopoulou FD, Skiada A et al. In vitro antifungal susceptibility of filamentous fungi causing rare infections: synergy testing of amphotericin B, posaconazole and anidulafungin in pairs. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 1937-1940.
92. Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Castelli MV, Cuesta I, Monzon A, Cuenca-Estrella M, Rodriguez-Tudela JL. Activity of posaconazole and other antifungal agents against Mucorales strains identified by sequencing of internal transcribed spacers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 1686-1689.
93. Pastor FJ, Ruiz-Cendoya M, Pujol I, Mayayo E, Sutton DA, Guarro J. In vitro and in vivo antifungal susceptibilities of the Mucoralean fungus Cunninghamella. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54: 4550-4555.
94. Spellberg B, Fu Y, Edwards JE Jr, Ibrahim AS. Combination therapy with amphotericin B lipid complex and caspofungin acetate of disseminated zygomycosis in diabetic ketoacidotic mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 830-832.
95. Rodriguez MM, Serena C, Marine M, Pastor FJ, Guarro J. Posaconazole combined with amphotericin B, an effective therapy for a murine disseminated infection caused by Rhizopus oryzae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 3786-3788.
96. Dannaoui E, Afeltra J, Meis JF, Verweij PE. In vitro susceptibilities of zygomycetes to combinations of antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 2708-2711.
97. Perkhofer S, Locher M, Cuenca-Estrella M et al. Posaconazole enhances the activity of amphotericin B against hyphae of zygomycetes in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 2636-2638.
98. Guembe M, Guinea J, Pelaez T, Torres-Narbona M, Bouza E. Synergistic effect of posaconazole and caspofungin against clinical zygomycetes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 3457-3458.
99. Gomez-Lopez A, Cuenca-Estrella M, Mellado E, Rodriguez-Tudela JL. In vitro evaluation of combination of terbinafine with itraconazole or amphotericin B against Zygomycota. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 45: 199-202.
100. Zhang S, Li R, Yu J. Drug combinations against Mucor irregularis in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57: 3395-3397.
101. de Pauw B, Walsh TJ, Donnelly JP et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1813-1821.
102. Chamilos G, Marom EM, Lewis RE, Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Predictors of pulmonary zygomycosis versus invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 60-66.
103. Wahba H, Truong MT, Lei X, Kontoyiannis DP, Marom EM. Reversed halo sign in invasive pulmonary fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1733-1737.
104. Marchiori E, Zanetti G, Escuissato DL et al. Reversed halo sign: high-resolution CT scan findings in 79 patients. Chest 2012; 141: 1260-1266.
105. Pagano L, Offidani M, Fianchi L et al. Mucormycosis in hematologic patients. Haematologica 2004; 89: 207-214.
106. Centeno RS, Bentson JR, Mancuso AA. CT scanning in rhinocerebral mucormycosis and aspergillosis. Radiology 1981; 140: 383-389.
107. Gamba JL, Woodruff WW, Djang WT, Yeates AE. Craniofacial mucormycosis: assessment with CT. Radiology 1986; 160: 207-212.
108. Herrera DA, Dublin AB, Ormsby EL, Aminpour S, Howell LP. Imaging findings of rhinocerebral mucormycosis. Skull Base 2009; 19: 117-125.
109. Koc Z, Koc F, Yerdelen D, Ozdogu H. Rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis with different cerebral involvements: infarct, hemorrhage, and ophthalmoplegia. Int J Neurosci 2007; 117: 1677-1690.
110. Mohindra S, Mohindra S, Gupta R, Bakshi J, Gupta SK. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: the disease spectrum in 27 patients. Mycoses 2007; 50: 290-296.
111. Cornely OA, Maertens J, Winston DJ et al. Posaconazole vs. fluconazole or itraconazole prophylaxis in patients with neutropenia. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 348-359.
112. Ullmann AJ, Lipton JH, Vesole DH et al. Posaconazole or fluconazole for prophylaxis in severe graft-versus-host disease. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 335-347.
113. Pagano L, Caira M, Candoni A et al. Evaluation of the practice of antifungal prophylaxis use in patients with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia: results from the SEIFEM 2010-B registry. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 1515-1521.
114. Singh J, Rimek D, Kappe R. In vitro susceptibility of 15 strains of zygomycetes to nine antifungal agents as determined by the NCCLS M38-A microdilution method. Mycoses 2005; 48: 246-250.
115. Guinea J, Pelaez T, Recio S, Torres-Narbona M, Bouza E. In vitro antifungal activities of isavuconazole (BAL4815), voriconazole, and fluconazole against 1, 007 isolates of zygomycete, Candida, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Scedosporium species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 1396-1400.
116. Rambach G, Oberhauser H, Speth C, Lass-Florl C. Susceptibility of Candida species and various moulds to antimycotic drugs: use of epidemiological cutoff values according to EUCAST and CLSI in an 8-year survey. Med Mycol 2011; 49: 856-863.
117. Nosari A, Ravini M, Cairoli R et al. Surgical resection of persistent pulmonary fungus nodules and secondary prophylaxis are effective in preventing fungal relapse in patients receiving chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation for leukemia. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007; 39: 631-635.
118. Hoover M, Morgan ER, Kletzel M. Prior fungal infection is not a contraindication to bone marrow transplant in patients with acute leukemia. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997; 28: 268-273.
119. Cornely OA, Bassetti M, Calandra T et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: non-neutropenic adult patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18 (Suppl. 7): 19-37.
120. Tedder M, Spratt JA, Anstadt MP, Hegde SS, Tedder SD, Lowe JE. Pulmonary mucormycosis: results of medical and surgical therapy. Ann Thorac Surg 1994; 57: 1044-1050.
121. Zaoutis TE, Roilides E, Chiou CC et al. Zygomycosis in children: a systematic review and analysis of reported cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007; 26: 723-727.
122. Greenberg RN, Mullane K, van Burik JA et al. Posaconazole as salvage therapy for zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 126-133.
123. Vironneau P, Verillaud B, Tran H et al. [Rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis, surgical treatment, state of the art]. Med Sci (Paris) 2013; 29: 31-35.
124. Ibrahim AS, Avanessian V, Spellberg B, Edwards JE Jr. Liposomal amphotericin B, and not amphotericin B deoxycholate, improves survival of diabetic mice infected with Rhizopus oryzae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 3343-3344.
125. Lewis RE, Albert ND, Liao G, Hou J, Prince RA, Kontoyiannis DP. Comparative pharmacodynamics of amphotericin B lipid complex and liposomal amphotericin B in a murine model of pulmonary mucormycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54: 1298-1304.
126. Ibrahim AS, Gebremariam T, Husseiny MI et al. Comparison of lipid amphotericin B preparations in treating murine zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 1573-1576.
127. Groll AH, Giri N, Petraitis V et al. Comparative efficacy and distribution of lipid formulations of amphotericin B in experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis 2000; 182: 274-282.
128. Cornely OA, Maertens J, Bresnik M et al. Liposomal amphotericin B as initial therapy for invasive mold infection: a randomized trial comparing a high-loading dose regimen with standard dosing (AmBiLoad trial). Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 1289-1297.
129. Lanternier F, Lortholary O. AMBIZYGO: Phase II study of high dose liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) [10 mg/kg/day] efficacy against zygomycosis. Med Mal Infect 2008; 38 (Suppl. 2): S90-S91.
130. Larkin JA, Montero JA. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex for zygomycosis. Infect Med 2003; 20: 201-206.
131. Dannaoui E, Meis JF, Loebenberg D, Verweij PE. Activity of posaconazole in treatment of experimental disseminated zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 3647-3650.
132. Salas V, Pastor FJ, Calvo E et al. Experimental murine model of disseminated infection by Saksenaea vasiformis: successful treatment with posaconazole. Med Mycol 2012; 50: 710-715.
133. Salas V, Pastor FJ, Calvo E et al. Efficacy of posaconazole in a murine model of disseminated infection caused by Apophysomyces variabilis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 1712-1715.
134. Ullmann AJ, Cornely OA, Burchardt A et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy of posaconazole in patients with persistent febrile neutropenia or refractory invasive fungal infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 658-666.
135. Reed C, Bryant R, Ibrahim AS et al. Combination polyene-caspofungin treatment of rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 364-371.
136. Ullmann AJ, Sanz MA, Tramarin A et al. Prospective study of amphotericin B formulations in immunocompromised patients in 4 European countries. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: e29-e38.
137. Walsh TJ, Finberg RW, Arndt C et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 764-771.
138. Segal BH, Herbrecht R, Stevens DA et al. Defining responses to therapy and study outcomes in clinical trials of invasive fungal diseases: Mycoses Study Group and European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer consensus criteria. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 674-683.
139. van Burik JA, Hare RS, Solomon HF, Corrado ML, Kontoyiannis DP. Posaconazole is effective as salvage therapy in zygomycosis: a retrospective summary of 91 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: e61-e65.
140. Cornely OA, Vehreschild JJ, Ruping MJ. Current experience in treating invasive zygomycosis with posaconazole. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15 (Suppl. 5): 77-81.
141. Vehreschild JJ, Birtel A, Vehreschild MJ et al. Mucormycosis treated with posaconazole: review of 96 case reports. Crit Rev Microbiol 2012; 39: 310-324.
142. Walsh TJ, Hiemenz JW, Seibel NL et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex for invasive fungal infections: analysis of safety and efficacy in 556 cases. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26: 1383-1396.
143. Herbrecht R, Letscher-Bru V, Bowden RA et al. Treatment of 21 cases of invasive mucormycosis with amphotericin B colloidal dispersion. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 20: 460-466.
144. Ibrahim AS, Gebremariam T, Schwartz JA, Edwards JE Jr, Spellberg B. Posaconazole mono- or combination therapy for treatment of murine zygomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 772-775.
145. Pagano L, Cornely O, Busca A et al. Combined antifungal approach for the treatment of invasive mucormycosis in patients with hematological diseases: a report from the SEIFEM and FUNGISCOPE registries. Haematologica 2013; 98: e127-e130.
146. Roilides E, Zaoutis TE, Katragkou A, Benjamin DK Jr, Walsh TJ. Zygomycosis in neonates: an uncommon but life-threatening infection. Am J Perinatol 2009; 26: 565-573.
147. Dabritz J, Attarbaschi A, Tintelnot K et al. Mucormycosis in paediatric patients: demographics, risk factors and outcome of 12 contemporary cases. Mycoses 2011; 54: e785-e788.
148. Dehority W, Willert J, Pong A. Zygomycetes infections in pediatric hematology oncology patients: a case series and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009; 31: 911-919.
149. Phulpin-Weibel A, Rivier A, Leblanc T, Bertrand Y, Chastagner P. Focus on invasive mucormycosis in paediatric haematology oncology patients: a series of 11 cases. Mycoses 2013; 56: 236-240.
150. Prasad PA, Vaughan AM, Zaoutis TE. Trends in zygomycosis in children. Mycoses 2012; 55: 352-356.
151. Hope WW, Castagnola E, Groll AH et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: prevention and management of invasive infections in neonates and children caused by Candida spp. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18 (Suppl. 7): 38-52.
152. Shoham S, Magill SS, Merz WG et al. Primary treatment of zygomycosis with liposomal amphotericin B: analysis of 28 cases. Med Mycol 2010; 48: 511-517.
153. Walsh TJ, Whitcomb P, Piscitelli S et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B lipid complex in children with hepatosplenic candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1944-1948.
154. Würthwein G, Groll AH, Hempel G, Adler-Shohet FC, Lieberman JM, Walsh TJ. Population pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B lipid complex in neonates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 5092-5098.
155. Hong Y, Shaw PJ, Nath CE et al. Population pharmacokinetics of liposomal amphotericin B in pediatric patients with malignant diseases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 935-942.
156. Walsh TJ, Seibel NL, Arndt C et al. Amphotericin B lipid complex in pediatric patients with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999; 18: 702-708.
157. Wiley JM, Seibel NL, Walsh TJ. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex in 548 children and adolescents with invasive fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005; 24: 167-174.
158. Juster-Reicher A, Flidel-Rimon O, Amitay M, Even-Tov S, Shinwell E, Leibovitz E. High-dose liposomal amphotericin B in the therapy of systemic candidiasis in neonates. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 603-607.
159. Kolve H, Ahlke E, Fegeler W, Ritter J, Jurgens H, Groll AH. Safety, tolerance and outcome of treatment with liposomal amphotericin B in paediatric patients with cancer or undergoing haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64: 383-387.
160. Chiou CC, Walsh TJ, Groll AH. Clinical pharmacology of antifungal agents in pediatric patients. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2007; 8: 2465-2489.
161. Krishna G, Sansone-Parsons A, Martinho M, Kantesaria B, Pedicone L. Posaconazole plasma concentrations in juvenile patients with invasive fungal infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 812-818.
162. Welzen ME, Bruggemann RJ, Van Den Berg JM et al. A twice daily posaconazole dosing algorithm for children with chronic granulomatous disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011; 30: 794-797.
163. Döring M, Müller C, Johann PD et al. Analysis of posaconazole as oral antifungal prophylaxis in pediatric patients under 12 years of age following allogeneic stem cell transplantation. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12: 263.
164. Lehrnbecher T, Attarbaschi A, Duerken M et al. Posaconazole salvage treatment in paediatric patients: a multicentre survey. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 29: 1043-1045.
165. Walsh TJ, Raad I, Patterson TF et al. Treatment of invasive aspergillosis with posaconazole in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of conventional therapy: an externally controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 2-12.
166. Ibrahim AS, Gebremariam T, Fu Y, Edwards JE Jr, Spellberg B. Combination echinocandin-polyene treatment of murine mucormycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 1556-1558.
167. Sáez-Llorens X, Macias M, Maiya P et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of caspofungin in neonates and infants less than 3 months of age. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 869-875.
168. Walsh TJ, Adamson PC, Seibel NL et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability of caspofungin in children and adolescents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 4536-4545.
169. Neely M, Jafri HS, Seibel N et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of caspofungin in older infants and toddlers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 1450-1456.
170. Zaoutis T, Lehrnbecher T, Groll AH et al. Safety experience with caspofungin in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009; 28: 1132-1135.
171. Pagano L, Ricci P, Tonso A et al. Mucormycosis in patients with haematological malignancies: a retrospective clinical study of 37 cases. GIMEMA Infection Program (Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche Maligne dell'Adulto). Br J Haematol 1997; 99: 331-336.
172. Kontoyiannis DP. Decrease in the number of reported cases of zygomycosis among patients with diabetes mellitus: a hypothesis. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 1089-1090.
173. Pagano L, Valentini CG, Posteraro B et al. Zygomycosis in Italy: a survey of FIMUA-ECMM (Federazione Italiana di Micopatologia Umana ed Animale and European Confederation of Medical Mycology). J Chemother 2009; 21: 322-329.
174. Kara IO, Tasova Y, Uguz A, Sahin B. Mucormycosis-associated fungal infections in patients with haematologic malignancies. Int J Clin Pract 2007; 63: 134-139.
175. Kontoyiannis DP, Wessel VC, Bodey GP, Rolston KV. Zygomycosis in the 1990s in a tertiary-care cancer center. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 851-856.
176. Safdar A, Rodriguez GH, Lichtiger B et al. Recombinant interferon γ1b immune enhancement in 20 patients with hematologic malignancies and systemic opportunistic infections treated with donor granulocyte transfusions. Cancer 2006; 106: 2664-2671.
177. Sun HY, Aguado JM, Bonatti H et al. Pulmonary zygomycosis in solid organ transplant recipients in the current era. Am J Transplant 2009; 9: 2166-2171.
178. Singh N, Aguado JM, Bonatti H et al. Zygomycosis in solid organ transplant recipients: a prospective, matched case-control study to assess risks for disease and outcome. J Infect Dis 2009; 200: 1002-1011.
179. Sun HY, Forrest G, Gupta KL et al. Rhino-orbital-cerebral zygomycosis in solid organ transplant recipients. Transplantation 2010; 90: 85-92.
180. Yohai RA, Bullock JD, Aziz AA, Markert RJ. Survival factors in rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis. Surv Ophthalmol 1994; 39: 3-22.
181. Bhansali A, Bhadada S, Sharma A et al. Presentation and outcome of rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis in patients with diabetes. Postgrad Med J 2004; 80: 670-674.
182. Patino JF, Castro D. Necrotizing lesions of soft tissues: a review. World J Surg 1991; 15: 235-239.
183. Ibrahim AS, Gebermariam T, Fu Y et al. The iron chelator deferasirox protects mice from mucormycosis through iron starvation. J Clin Invest 2007; 117: 2649-2657.
184. Liu M, Spellberg B, Phan QT et al. The endothelial cell receptor GRP78 is required for mucormycosis pathogenesis in diabetic mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120: 1914-1924.
185. Ibrahim AS, Gebremariam T, French SW, Edwards JE Jr, Spellberg B. The iron chelator deferasirox enhances liposomal amphotericin B efficacy in treating murine invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65: 289-292.
186. Spellberg B, Andes D, Perez M et al. Safety and outcomes of open-label deferasirox iron chelation therapy for mucormycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 3122-3125.
187. Spellberg B, Ibrahim AS, Chin-Hong PV et al. The Deferasirox-AmBisome Therapy for Mucormycosis (DEFEAT Mucor) study: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 715-722.
188. Lukacs G, Papp T, Nyilasi I, Nagy E, Vagvolgyi C. Differentiation of Rhizomucor species on the basis of their different sensitivities to lovastatin. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 5400-5402.
189. Chamilos G, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP. Lovastatin has significant activity against zygomycetes and interacts synergistically with voriconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 96-103.
190. Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet 2003; 362: 1828-1838.
191. John BV, Chamilos G, Kontoyiannis DP. Hyperbaric oxygen as an adjunctive treatment for zygomycosis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11: 515-517.
192. Maertens J, Theunissen K, Verhoef G et al. Galactomannan and computed tomography-based preemptive antifungal therapy in neutropenic patients at high risk for invasive fungal infection: a prospective feasibility study. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1242-1250.
193. Bernal-Martinez L, Buitrago MJ, Castelli MV, Rodriguez-Tudela JL, Cuenca-Estrella M. Development of a single tube multiplex real-time PCR to detect the most clinically relevant Mucormycetes species. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19: E1-E7.
194. Millon L, Larosa F, Lepiller Q et al. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction detection of circulating DNA in serum for early diagnosis of mucormycosis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: e95-e101.
195. Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Castelli MV, Cuesta I et al. In vitro activity of antifungals against Zygomycetes. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15 (Suppl. 5): 71-76.
196. Gleissner B, Schilling A, Anagnostopolous I, Siehl I, Thiel E. Improved outcome of zygomycosis in patients with hematological diseases? Leuk Lymphoma 2004; 45: 1351-1360.
197. Rammaert B, Lanternier F, Poiree S, Kania R, Lortholary O. Diabetes and mucormycosis: a complex interplay. Diabetes Metab 2012; 38: 193-204.
198. Garcia-Diaz JB, Palau L, Pankey GA. Resolution of rhinocerebral zygomycosis associated with adjuvant administration of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: e145-e150.
199. Chakrabarti A, Das A, Sharma A et al. Ten years' experience in zygomycosis at a tertiary care centre in India. J Infect 2001; 42: 261-266.
200. Bernardo VA, Cross SJ, Crews KR et al. Posaconazole therapeutic drug monitoring in pediatric patients and young adults with cancer. Ann Pharmacother 2013; 47: 976-83.