Evolution of the apical ectoderm in the developing vertebrate limb

Epigenetics: Linking Genotype and Phenotype in Development and Evolution

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 238-255

  Cooper, Lisa Noelle ^a   Armfield, Brooke Autumn ^a   Thewissen, J G M ^a  

^a NORTHEAST OHIO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84887759082     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (102)

1. Ahn, K., Y. Mishina, M. C. Hanks, R. R. Behringer, and E. B. Crenshaw III. 2001. BMPR-IA signaling is required for the formation of the apical ectodermal ridge and dorsal-ventral patterning of the limb. Development 128:4449-61.
2. Bardeen, C. R., and W. H. Lewis. 1901. The development of the limbs, body-wall and back in man. Am J Anat 1:1-36.
3. Barrow, J. R., K. R. Thomas, O. Boussadia-Zahui, R. Moore, R. Kemler, M. R. Capecchi, and A. P. McMahon. 2003. Ectodermal Wnt3/ß-catenin signaling is required for the establishment and maintenance of the apical ectodermal ridge. Genes Dev 17:394-409.
4. Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., J. E. Jeffery, M. R. Sánchez- Villagra, J. Hanken, M. Colbert, C. Pieau, L. Selwood, et al. 2007. Forelimb-hindlimb developmental timing changes across tetrapod phylogeny. BMC Evol Biol 7:182.
5. Boulet, A. M., A. M. Moon, B. R. Arenkiel, and M. R. Capecchi. 2004. The roles of Fgf4 and Fgf8 in limb bud initiation and outgrowth. Dev Biol 273 (2): 361-72.
6. Bouvet, J. 1968. Histogenèse précoce et morphogenèse du squelette cartilagineux des ceintures primaires et des nageoires paires chez la truite (Salmo trutta fario L.). Arch Anat Microsc 57: 35-52.
7. Braus, H. 1906. Die Entwickelulng der form der Extremitäten und des Extremitätenskeletts. Hertwig Hbh Entwicklung Wirbelt 3:167-338.
8. Christen, B., and J. M. W. Slack. 1997. FGF-8 is associated with anteroposterior patterning and limb regeneration in Xenopus. Dev Biol 192:455-66.
9. Christensen, R. N., and R. A. Tassava. 2000. Apical epithelial cap morphology and fibronectin gene expression in regenerating axolotl limbs. Dev Dyn 217:216-24.
10. Christensen, R. N., M. Weinstein, and R. A. Tassava. 2002. Expression of fibroblast growth factors 4, 8, and 10 in limbs, flanks, and blastemas of Ambystoma. Dev Dyn 223:193-203.
11. Cohn, M. J., and C. Tickle. 1999. Developmental basis of limblessness and axial patterning in snakes. Nature 399:474-9.
12. Cretekos, C. J., J. M. Deng, E. D. Green, J. J. Rasweiler, and R. R. Behringer. 2007. Isolation, genomic structure and developmental expression of Fgf8 in the short-tailed fruit bat, Carollia perspicillata. Int J Dev Biol 51:333-8.
13. Cretekos, C. J., J. J. Rasweiler IV, and R. R. Behringer. 2001. Comparative limb morphogenesis in mice and bats: A functional genetic approach towards a molecular understanding of diversity in organ formation. Reprod Fertil Dev 13:691-5.
14. Davidson, L. A. 2008. Apoptosis turbocharges epithelial morphogenesis. Science 321:1641-2.
15. Dufaure, J. P., and J. Hubert. 1961. Table de développment du lézard vivipare: Lacerta (Zootoca) vivipara Jacquin. Arch Anat Micr Morph Exp 50:309-27.
16. Errick, J., and J. W. Saunders. 1974. Effects of an "inside-out" limb bud ectoderm on development of the avian limb. Dev Biol 41:338-51.
17. Fang, H., and R. P. Elinson. 1996. Patterns of distalless gene expression and inductive interactions in the head of the direct developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui. Dev Biol 179:160-72.
18. Ferguson, M. W. J. 1985. Reproductive biology and embryology of the crocodilians. In Biology of the Reptilia, ed. C. Gans, F. Billett, and P. F. A. Maderson, 329-491. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
19. Fernandez-Teran, M., and M. A. Ros. 2008. The apical ectodermal ridge: Morphological aspects and signaling pathways. Int J Dev Biol 52:857-71.
20. Fischel, A. 1929. Lerbuch der Entwicklung des Menschen. Berlin: Springer.
21. Franssen, R. A., S. Marks, D. Wake, and N. Shubin. 2005. Limb chondrogenesis of the seepage salamander, Desmognathus aeneus (Amphibia: Plethodontidae). J Morphol 265:87-101.
22. Galis, F., G. P. Wagner, and E. L. Jockusch. 2003. Why is limb regeneration possible in amphibians but not in reptiles, birds, and mammals? Evol Dev 5 (2): 208-20.
23. Géraudie, J. 1978. Scanning electron microscope study of the developing trout pelvic fin bud. Anat Rec 191:391-6.
24. Géraudie, J., and Y. François. 1973. Les premiers stades de la formation de l'ébauche de nagoire pelvienne de truite (Salmo fario et Salmo gairdneri). I. Etude anatomique. J Embryol Exp Morphol 29:221-37.
25. Goel, S. C., and J. K. Mathur. 1977. Morphogenesis in reptilian limbs. In Vertebrate Limb and Somite Morphogenesis, ed. D. A. Ede, J. R. Hinchliffe, and M. Balls, 387-404. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
26. Grandel, H., and S. Schulte-Merker. 1998. The development of paired fins in the zebrafish (Danio rerio). Mech Dev 79:99-120.
27. Hallgrímsson, B., K. Willmore, and B. K. Hall. 2002. Canalization, developmental stability, and morphological integration in primate limbs. Ybk Phys Anthropol 45:131-58.
28. Hamrick, M. W. 2001. Primate origins: Evolutionary change in digital ray patterning and segmentation. J Hum Evol 40:339-51.
29. Hamrick, M. W. 2002. Developmental mechanisms of digit reduction. Evol Dev 4 (4): 247-8.
30. Han, M.-J., J.-Y. An, and W.-S. Kim. 2001. Expression patterns of Fgf-8 during development and limb regeneration of the axolotl. Dev Dyn 220:40-8.
31. Han, M., X. Yang, G. Taylor, C. A. Burdsal, R. A. Anderson, and K. Muneoka. 2005. Limb regeneration in higher vertebrates: Developing a roadmap. Anat Rec B New Anat 287:14-24.
32. Hanken, J. 1986. Developmental evidence for amphibian origins. Evol Biol 20:389-417.
33. Hanken, J., T. F. Carl, M. K. Richardson, L. Olsson, G. Schlosser, C. K. Osabutey, and M. W. Klymkowsky. 2001. Limb development in a "nonmodel" vertebrate, the direct-developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui. J Exp Zoolog B Mol Dev Evol 291:375-88.
34. Hara, K., J. Kimura, and H. Ide. 1998. Effects of FGFs on the morphogenetic potency and AERmaintenance activity of cultured progress zone cells of chick limb bud. Int J Dev Biol 42:591-9.
35. Hodgkinson, V. S., Z. Johanson, R. Ericsson, and J. M. P. Joss. 2007. Apical ectodermal ridge (AER) development in the pectoral fin of the Australian lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri). J Morphol 268 (12): 1085.
36. Holmgren, N. 1933. On the origin of the tetrapod limb. Acta Zool 14:185-295.
37. Honig, L. S. 1984. Pattern formation during development of the amniote limb. In The Structure, Development, and Evolution of Reptiles, ed. M. J. W. Ferguson, 197-221. London: Academic Press.
38. Jarvik, E. 1965. On the origin of girdles and paired fins. Isr J Zool 14:141-72.
39. Jurand, A. 1965. Ultrastructural aspects of early development of the fore-limb buds in the chick and the mouse. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 162 (988): 387-405.
40. Kelley, R. O. 1973. Fine structure of the apical rim-mesenchyme complex during limb morphogenesis in man. J Embryol Exp Morphol 29:117-31.
41. Kengaku, M., J. Capdevila, C. Rodriguez-Esteban, J. de la Peña, R. L. Johnson, J. C. I. Belmonte, and C. J. Tabin. 1998. Distinct WNT pathways regulating AER formation and dorsoventral polarity in the chick limb bud. Science 280:1274-7.
42. Keyte, A. L., T. Imam, and K. K. Smith. 2006. Limb heterochrony in a marsupial, M. domestica. Dev Biol 295:414-22.
43. Kimmel, R. A., D. H. Turnbull, V. Blanquet, W. Wurst, C. A. Loomis, and A. L. Joyner. 2000. Two lineage boundaries coordinate vertebrate apical ectodermal ridge formation. Genes Dev 14 (11): 1377-89.
44. Köllicker, A. 1879. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höhren Thiere, Zweite Auflage.Leipzig: W. Englemann.
45. Lee, K. K. H., and W. Y. Chan. 1991. A study of the regenerative potential of partially excised mouse embryonic fore-limb bud. Anat Embryol 184:153-7.
46. Lu, P., Y. Yu, Y. Perdue, and Z. Werb. 2008. The apical ectodermal ridge is a timer for generating distal limb progenitors. Development 135:1395-1405.
47. Mahmood, R., J. Bresnick, A. Hornbruch, C. Mahony, N. Morton, K. Colquhoun, P. Martin, A. Lumsden, C. Dickson, and I. Mason. 1995. A role for FGF-8 in the initiation and maintenance of vertebrate limb outgrowth. Curr Biol 5 (7): 797-806.
48. Mariani, F. V., C. P. Ahn, and G. R. Martin. 2008. Genetic evidence that FGFs have an instructive role in limb proximal-distal patterning. Nature 453:401-5.
49. McCrady, E. 1938. Embryology of the opossum. Am Anat Mem 16:1-233.
50. Mercader, N. 2007. Early steps of paired fin development in zebrafish compared with tetrapod limb development. Dev Growth Differ 49:421-37.
51. Michaud, J. L., F. Lapointe, and N. M. Le Douarin. 1997. The dorsoventral polarity of the presumptive limb is determined by signals produced by the somites and by the lateral somatopleure. Development 124:1443-52.
52. Milaire, J. 1957. Contribution à la connaissance morphologique et cytochimique des bourgeons de membres chez quelques reptiles. Arch Biol 68:429-512.
53. Miller, J. D. 1985. Embryology of marine turtles. In Biology of the Reptilia, ed. C. Gans, F. Billett, and P. F. A. Maderson, 269-328. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
54. Moon, A. M., and M. R. Capecchi. 2000. Fgf8 is required for outgrowth and patterning of limbs. Nat Genet 26:455-9.
55. Narita, T., S. Sasaoka, K. Udagawa, T. Ohyama, N. Wada, S. I. Nishimatsu, S. Takada, and T. Nohno. 2005. Wnt10a is involved in AER formation during chick limb development. Dev Dyn 233:282-7.
56. Ngo-Muller, V., and K. Muneoka. 2000. Influence of FGF4 on digit morphogenesis during limb development in the mouse. Dev Biol 219:224-36.
57. Niswander, L. 2002. Interplay between the molecular signals that control vertebrate limb development. Int J Dev Biol 46:877-81.
58. Niswander, L., S. Jeffrey, G. R. Martin, and C. Tickle. 1994a. A positive feedback loop coordinates growth and patterning in the vertebrate limb. Nature 371:609-12.
59. Niswander, L., C. Tickle, A. Vogel, and G. Martin. 1994b. Function of FGF-4 in limb development. Mol Reprod Dev 39 (1): 83-9.
60. Onda, H., and R. A. Tassava. 1991. Expression of the 9G1 antigen in the apical cap of axolotl regenerates requires nerves and mesenchyme. J Exp Zool 257:336-49.
61. O'Rahilly, R., E. Gardner, and D. J. Gray. 1956. The ectodermal thickening and ridge in the limbs of staged human embryos. J Embryol Exp Morphol 4:254-64.
62. O'Rahilly, R., and F. Müller. 1985. The origin of the ectodermal ring in staged human embryos of the first 5 weeks. Acta Anat 122:145-57.
63. Panman, L., A. Galli, N. Lagarde, O. Michos, G. Soete, A. Zuniga, and R. Zeller. 2006. Differential regulation of gene expression in the digit forming area of the mouse limb bud by SHH and gremlin 1/FGF-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal signaling. Development 133:3419-28.
64. Patten, B. M. 1943. The Embryology of the Pig, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Blakiston.
65. Peter, K. 1903. Mitteilungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Eidechse. IV. Die Extremitätenscheitelleiste der Amnioten. Arch Mikr Anat 61:509-21.
66. Pizette, S., C. Abate-Shen, and L. Niswander. 2001. BMP controls proximodistal outgrowth, via induction of the apical ectodermal ridge, and dorsoventral patterning in the vertebrate limb. Development 128:4463-74.
67. Pizette, S., and L. Niswander. 1999. BMPs negatively regulate structure and function of the limb apical ectodermal ridge. Development 126:883-94.
68. Poss, K. D., J. Shen, A. Nechiporuk, G. McMahon, B. Thisse, C. Thisse, and M. T. Keating. 2000. Roles for Fgf signaling during zebrafish fin regeneration. Dev Biol 222:347-58.
69. Prentiss, C. W. 1903. Polydactylism in man and the domestic animals, with especial reference to digital variations in swine. Bull Mus Comp Zool Harv Coll 40:1-341.
70. Reifers, F., H. Böhli, E. C. Walsh, P. H. Crossley, D. Y. R. Stainier, and M. Brand. 1998. Fgf8 is mutated in zebrafish acerebellar (ace) mutants and is required for maintenance of midbrain-hindbrain boundary development and somitogenesis. Development 125:2381-95.
71. Richardson, M. K. 1995. Heterochrony and the phylotypic period. Dev Biol 172:412-21.
72. Richardson, M. K., T. F. Carl, J. Hanken, R. P. Elinson, C. Cope, and P. Bagley. 1998. Limb development and evolution: A frog embryo with no apical ectodermal ridge (AER). J Anat 192:379-90.
73. Richardson, M. K., J. E. Jeffery, and C. J. Tabin. 2004. Proximodistal patterning of the limb: Insights from evolutionary morphology. Evol Dev 6 (1): 1-5.
74. Richardson, M. K., and H. A. Oelschläger. 2002. Time, pattern, and heterochrony: A study of hyperphalangy in the dolphin embryo flipper. Evol Dev 4:435-44.
75. Rubin, L., and J. W. Saunders. 1972. Ectodermal-mesodermal interactions in the growth of limb buds in the chick embryo: Constancy and temporal limits of the ectodermal induction. Dev Biol 28:94-112.
76. Sanz-Ezquerro, J. J., and C. Tickle. 2003. Fgf signaling controls the number of phalanges and tip formation in developing digits. Curr Biol 13 (20): 1830-6.
77. Saunders, J. W., Jr. 1948. The proximodistal sequence of origin of the parts of the chick wing and the role of the ectoderm. J Exp Zool 108:363-403.
78. Saunders, J. W., Jr. 1998. Apical ectodermal ridge in retrospect. J Exp Zool 282:669-76.
79. Saunders, J. W., and M. T. Gasseling. 1968. Ectodermal-mesodermal interactions in the origin of limb symmetry. In Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions, ed. R. E. Fleischmajer and R. Billingham, 78-97. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
80. Schmidt, H. 1898. Über die Entwicklung der Milchdruse und die Hyperthelie menschlicher Embryogen. Morph Arb Jena 8:157-93.
81. Sears, K. E. 2004. Constraints on the morphological evolution of marsupial shoulder girdles. Evolution 58 (10): 2353-70.
82. Sears, K. E. 2008. Molecular determinants of bat wing development. Cells Tissues Organs 187: 6-12.
83. Sears, K. E., R. R. Behringer, J. J. Rasweiler IV, and L. A. Niswander. 2006. Development of bat flight: Morphologic and molecular evidence of bat wing digits. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (17): 6581-6.
84. Sedmera, D., I. Míšek, and M. Klima. 1997. On the development of cetacean extremities: II. Morphogenesis and histogenesis of the flippers in the spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata). Eur J Morphol 35:117-23.
85. Smith, K. K. 2003. Time's arrow: Heterochrony and the evolution of development. Int J Dev Biol 47:613-21.
86. Steiner, K. 1928. Entwicklungsmechanische Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung des ektodermalen Epithels der Extremitätenknospe von Amphibienlarven. Roux Arch Entwm Org 113:1-11.
87. Steiner, K. 1929. Über die Entwicklung und Differenzierungsweise der menschlichen Haut. I. Über die fruhembryonale Entwicklung der menschlichen Haut. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat 8: 691-720.
88. Sun, X., F. V. Mariani, and G. R. Martin. 2002. Functions of FGF signaling from the apical ectodermal ridge in limb development. Nature 418:501-8.
89. Tabin, C. J., and A. P. McMahon. 2008. Grasping limb patterning. Science 321:350-2.
90. Talamillo, A., M. F. Bastida, M. Fernandez-Teran, and M. A. Ros. 2005. The developing limb and the control of the number of digits. Clin Genet 67:143-53.
91. Tarin, D., and A. P. Sturdee. 1971. Early limb development of Xenopus laevis. J Embryol Exp Morphol 26 (2): 169-79.
92. Thewissen, J. G. M., M. J. Cohn, L. S. Stevens, S. Bajpai, J. Heyning, and W. E. Horton, Jr. 2006. Developmental basis for hind-limb loss in dolphins and origin of the cetacean body plan. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:8414-18.
93. Thewissen, J. G. M., and J. Heyning. 2007. Embryogenesis and development in Stenella attenuata and other cetaceans. In Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of Cetacea: Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises, vol 7. ed. D. L. Miller, 307-29. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers.
94. Tickle, C. 2006. Making digit patterns in the vertebrate limb. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 7:45-53.
95. Todt, W. L., and J. F. Fallon. 1984. Development of the apical ectodermal ridge in the chick wing bud. J Embryol Exp Morphol 80:24-41.
96. Toyama, Y., X. G. Peralta, A. R. Wells, D. P. Kiehart, and G. S. Edwards. 2008. Apoptotic force and tissue dynamics during Drosophila embryogenesis. Science 321:1683-6.
97. Vasse, J. 1972. Sur les activités de synthèse dans la crête épiblastique apicale de l'ébauche du membrane antérieur chez les embryons de tortue (Testudo graeca L. et Emys orbicularis L.); étude histologique et autoradiographique. C R Hebd Séanc Acad Sci Paris D 274:284-7.
98. Verheyden, J. M., and X. Sun. 2008. An Fgf/Gremlin inhibitory feedback loop triggers termination of limb bud outgrowth. Nature 454:638-41.
99. Vogel, A., C. Rodriguez, and J.-C. Izpisúa-Belmonte. 1996. Involvement of FGF-8 in initiation, outgrowth and patterning of the vertebrate limb. Development 122:1737-50.
100. Von Dassow, G., and E. Munro. 1999. Modularity in animal development and evolution: Elements of a conceptual framework for evodevo. J Exp Zoolog B Mol Dev Evol 285:307-25.
101. Weatherbee, S. D., R. R. Behringer, J. J. Rasweiler IV, and L. A. Niswander. 2006. Interdigital webbing retention in bat wings illustrates genetic changes underlying amniote diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (41): 15103-7.
102. Wood, A. 1982. Early pectoral fin development and morphogenesis of the apical ectodermal ridge in the killfish, Aphyosemion scheeli. Anat Rec 204: 349-56.