Teaching about race/ethnicity and racism matters: An examination of how perceived ethnic racial socialization processes are associated with depression symptoms

Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 383-394

  Liu, Lisa L ^a   Lau, Anna S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Depression; Ethnic minorities; Ethnic racial socialization; Optimism; Pessimism

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; ASIAN AMERICAN; DEPRESSION; ETHNIC GROUP; ETHNIC RACIAL SOCIALIZATION; ETHNICITY; FEMALE; HISPANIC; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; OPTIMISM; PESSIMISM; RACISM; SOCIALIZATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CALIFORNIA; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; DEPRESSION; ETHNIC GROUPS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; PARENTING; RACE RELATIONS; RACISM; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SOCIALIZATION; TRUST; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84887537634     PISSN: 10999809     EISSN: 19390106     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0033447     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. Anderson, E. R., & Mayes, L. C. (2010). Race/ethnicity and internalizing disorders in youth: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 338-348. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.008
2. Anglin, D. M., & Wade, J. C. (2007). Racial socialization, racial identity, and Black students' adjustment to college. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 207-215. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.207
3. Baldwin, D. R., Chambliss, L. N., & Towler, K. (2003). Optimism and stress: An African-American college student perspective. College Student Journal, 37, 276-285.
4. Baldwin, D. R., McIntyre, A., & Hardaway, E. (2007). Perceived parenting styles on college students' optimism. College Student Journal, 41, 550-557.
5. Boman, P., Smith, D. C., & Curtis, D. (2003). Effects of pessimism and explanatory style on development of anger in children. School Psychology International, 24, 80-94. doi:10.1177/0143034303024001581
6. Bowman, P. J., & Howard, C. (1985). Race-related socialization, motivation, and academic achievement: A study of Black youths in threegeneration families. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 134-141. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)60438-6
7. Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 64-71. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.64
8. Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
9. Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456-466. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.456
10. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139174794
11. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1999). Optimism. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 97-127). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
12. Caughy, M. O., O'Campo, P., Randolph, S. M., & Nickerson, K. (2002). The influence of racial socialization practices on the cognitive and behavioral competence of African American preschoolers. Child Development, 73, 1611-1625. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00493
13. Chang, E. C., Maydeu-Olivares, A., & D'Zurilla, T. J. (1997). Optimism and pessimism as partially independent constructs: Relations to positive and negative affectivity and psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 433-440.
14. Chang, E. C., & Sanna, L. J. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and positive and negative affectivity in middle-aged adults: A test of a cognitive-affective model of psychological adjustment. Psychology and Aging, 16, 524-531. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.16.3.524
15. Chaplin, T. M., Gillham, J. E., & Seligman, M. E. (2009). Gender, anxiety, and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal study of early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 307-327. doi:10.1177/0272431608320125
16. Chávez, N. R., & French, S. E. (2007). Ethnicity-related stressors and mental health in Latino Americans: The moderating role of parental racial segregation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 1974-1998. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00246.x
17. Constantine, M. G., & Blackmon, S. M. (2002). Black adolescents' racial socialization experiences: Their relations to home, school, and peer self-esteem. Journal of Black Studies, 32, 322-335. doi:10.1177/002193470203200303
18. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608
19. Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black adolescents. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53, 364-374. doi:10.2307/2786741
20. Derogatis, L. R. (1975). Brief Symptom Inventory. Baltimore, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research.
21. Derogatis, L. R., & Melisarotis, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595-605. doi: 10.1017/S0033291700048017
22. Dixon, W. A., Heppner, P. P., Burnett, J. W., & Lips, B. J. (1993). Hopelessness and stress: Evidence for an interactive model of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17, 39-52. doi:10.1007/BF01172739
23. Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679-695. doi:10.1023/A:1026455906512
24. Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the "burden of acting White". The Urban Review, 18, 176-206. doi:10.1007/BF01112192
25. Frabutt, J. M., Walker, A. M., & MacKinnon-Lewis, C. (2002). Racial socialization messages and the quality of mother/child interactions in African American families. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 200-217. doi:10.1177/0272431602022002004
26. Fuligni, A. J. (2007). Family obligation, college enrollment, and emerging adulthood in Asian and Latin American families. Child Development Perspectives, 1, 96-100. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00022.x
27. Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 669-682. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x
28. Hasan, N., & Power, T. G. (2002). Optimism and pessimism in children: A study of parenting correlates. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26, 185-191. doi:10.1080/01650250114300003
29. Hong, R. Y., Gwee, K., & Karia, M. (2006). The role of event-specific pessimistic inferences in the etiological chain of hopelessness depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1119-1129. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.016
30. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoffcriteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
31. Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200-214. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0104_4
32. Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children's experiences of parents' racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 981-995. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00981.x
33. Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747-770. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747
34. Hughes, D., Witherspoon, D., Rives-Drake, D., & West-Bey, N. (2009). Received ethnic-racial socialization messages and youths' academic and behavioral outcomes: Examining the mediating role of ethnic identity and self-esteem. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 112-124. doi:10.1037/a0015509
35. Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2008). Ethnic socialization and the academic adjustment of adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1202-1208. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1202
36. Johnston, K. E., Swim, J. K., Saltsman, B. M., Deater-Deckard, K., & Petrill, S. A. (2007). Mothers' racial, ethnic, and cultural socialization of transracially adopted Asian children. Family Relations, 56, 390-402. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00468.x
37. Joiner, T. E., Jr., Perez, M., Wagner, K. D., Berenson, A., & Marquina, G. S. (2001). On fatalism, pessimism, and depressive symptoms among Mexican-American and other adolescents attending an obstetricsgynecology clinic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 887-896. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00062-0
38. Lee, D. C., & Quintana, S. M. (2005). Benefits of cultural exposure and development of Korean perspective-taking ability for transracially adopted Korean children. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11, 130-143. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.11.2.130
39. Lee, R., Grotevant, H. D., Hellerstedt, W. L., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Cultural socialization in families with internationally adopted children. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 571-580. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.571
40. Litt, M. D., Tennen, H., Kadden, R., & Affleck, G. (2001). Optimism and pessimism in matching clients to alcoholism treatments. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 2484-2501. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00186.x
41. Massey, D. S., & Pren, K. A. (2012). Unintended consequences of U.S. immigration policy: Explaining the post-1965 surge from Latin America. Population and Development Review, 38, 1-29. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00470.x
42. Matsumoto, D. (2006). Are cultural differences in emotion regulation mediated by personality traits? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 421-437. doi:10.1177/0022022106288478
43. McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., Kim, J.-Y., Burton, L. M., Davis, K. D., Dotterer, A. M., & Swanson, D. P. (2006). Mothers' and fathers' racial socialization in African American families: Implications for youth. Child Development, 77, 1387-1402. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00942.x
44. Mohanty, J., Keokse, G., & Sales, E. (2007). Family cultural socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem: Web-based survey of international adult adoptees. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 15, 153-172. doi:10.1300/J051v15n03_07
45. Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (2002). Family Environment Scale manual: Development, applications, research (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Center for Health Care Evaluation, Department of Veterans Affairs and Stanford University Medical Centers.
46. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2004). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles, CA: Author.
47. Nagata, D. K., & Cheng, W. J. Y. (2003). Intergenerational communication of race-related trauma by Japanese American former internees. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 266-278. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.73.3.266
48. Neblett, E. W., White, R. L., Ford, K. R., Philip, C. L., Nguyen, H. X., Sellers, R. M. (2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 477-515. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00568.x
49. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173-176. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00142
50. Ogbu, J. U. (1974). The next generation: An ethnography of education in an urban neighborhood. New York, NY: Academic Press.
51. Ou, Y., & McAdoo, H. P. (1993). Socialization of Chinese American children. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Family ethnicity: Strength in diversity (pp. 245-270). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
52. Phinney, J. S., & Chavira, V. (1995). Parental ethnic socialization and adolescent coping with problems related to ethnicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 31-53. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0501_2
53. Puskar, K. R., Sereika, S. M., Lamb, J., Tusaie-Mumford, K., & McGuinness, T. (1999). Optimism and its relationship to depression, coping, anger, and life events in rural adolescents. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 20, 115-130. doi:10.1080/016128499248709
54. Rivas-Drake, D. (2011). Ethnic-racial socialization and adjustment among Latino college students: The mediating roles of ethnic centrality, public regard, and perceived barriers to opportunity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 606-619. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9564-z
55. Rosenbloom, S. R., & Way, N. (2004). Experiences of discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents in an urban high school. Youth & Society, 35, 420-451. doi:10.1177/0044118X03261479
56. Schmitt, N., Golubovich, J., & Leong, F. T. L. (2011). Impact of measurement invariance on construct correlations, mean differences, and relations with external correlates: An illustrative example using Big Five and RIASEC measures. Assessment, 18, 412-427. doi:10.1177/1073191110373223
57. Schueller, S. M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2008). Optimism and pessimism. In K. S. Dobson & D. J. A. Dozois (Eds.), Risk factors in depression (pp. 171-194). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-045078-0.00008-3
58. Scott, L. D. (2003). The relation of racial identity and racial socialization to coping with discrimination among African American adolescents. Journal of Black Studies, 33, 520-538. doi:10.1177/0021934702250035
59. Stevenson, H. C., Herrero-Taylor, T., Cameron, R., & Davis, G. Y. (2002). "Mitigating instigation": Cultural phenomenological influences of anger and fighting among "big-boned" and "baby-faced" African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 473-485. doi:10.1023/A: 1020267221683
60. Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., & Bodison, P. (1996). Kinship social support and adolescent racial socialization beliefs: Extending the self to family. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 498-508. doi:10.1177/00957984960224006
61. Thomas, A. J., & Speight, S. L. (1999). Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 25, 152-170. doi:10.1177/0095798499025002002
62. Thornton, M., Chatters, L., Taylor, R., & Allen, W. (1990). Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black parents. Child Development, 61, 401-409. doi:10.2307/1131101
63. Tran, A. G. T. T., & Lee, R. M. (2010). Perceived ethnic-racial socialization, ethnic identity, and social competence among Asian American late adolescents. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 169-178. doi:10.1037/a0016400
64. Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2001). Ethnic identity development among Mexicanorigin Latino adolescents living in the U.S. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Missouri, Columbia.
65. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Bhanot, R., & Shin, N. (2006). Ethnic identity formation during adolescence: The critical role of families. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 390-414. doi:10.1177/0192513X05282960
66. U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). 2010 Census shows America's diversity. Available at 2010.census.gov/news/releases/operations/cb11-cn125.html