Towards prevention of acute lung injury: Frequency and outcomes of emergency department patients at-risk - A multicenter cohort study

International Journal of Emergency Medicine

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Hou, Peter C ^a,b   Elie Turenne, Marie Carmelle ^c,d   Mitani, Aya ^a,k   Barry, Jonathan M ^a   Kao, Erica Y ^a   Cohen, Jason E ^e,f   Frendl, Gyorgy ^a,b   Gajic, Ognjen ^g,h   Gentile, Nina T ^i,j  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA HEALTH JACKSONVILLE   (United States)

^e ALBANY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^f ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^g MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^h MAYO CLINIC COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

ⁱ TEMPLE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

^j TEMPLE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^k STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACUTE LUNG INJURY; ADULT; AGED; AORTA SURGERY; ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; EMERGENCY PATIENT; EMERGENCY WARD; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HOSPITAL DISCHARGE; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE; LENGTH OF STAY; LOW RISK PATIENT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MORTALITY; PANCREATITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

EID: 84887015624     PISSN: 18651372     EISSN: 18651380     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1865-1380-5-22     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, Levine BE (1967) Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 2:319-323.
2. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, Carlet J, Falke K, Hudson L, Lamy M, Legall JR, Morris A, Spragg R (1994) The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:818-824. (Pubitemid 24082248)
3. Ware LB, Matthay MA (2000) The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342:1334-1349. (Pubitemid 30408719)
4. Wheeler AP, Bernard GR (2007) Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a clinical review. Lancet 369:1553-1564. (Pubitemid 46670280)
5. National Heart and Lung Institute (1972) Task force on problems, research approaches, needs: the lung program. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C, pp 73-432, [Publication no. (NIH).
6. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, Weaver J, Martin DP, Neff M, Stern EJ, Hudson LD (2005) Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 353:1685-1693. (Pubitemid 41464707)
7. Phua J, Badia JR, Adhikari NK, Friedrich JO, Fowler RA, Singh JM, Scales DC, Stather DR, Li A, Jones A, Gattas DJ, Hallett D, Tomlinson G, Stewart TE, Ferguson ND (2009) Has mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome decreased over time?: A systematic review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179:220-227.
8. Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matte A, Tomlinson G, Diaz-Granados N, Cooper A, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, Kudlow P, Cook D, Slutsky AS, Cheung AM (2011) Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 364:1293-1304.
9. Pugin J, Verghese G, Widmer MC, Matthay MA (1999) The alveolar space is the site of intense inflammatory and profibrotic reactions in the early phase of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 27:304-312. (Pubitemid 29113539)
10. Salzer WL, McCall CE (1990) Primed stimulation of isolated perfused rabbit lung by endotoxin and platelet activating factor induces enhanced production of thromboxane and lung injury. J Clin Invest 85:1135-1143. (Pubitemid 20123755)
11. Silliman CC, Voelkel NF, Allard JD, Elzi DJ, Tuder RM, Johnson JL, Ambruso DR (1998) Plasma and lipids from stored packed red blood cells cause acute lung injury in an animal model. J Clin Invest 101: 1458-1467. (Pubitemid 28166844)
12. (2000) Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med 342:1301-1308.
13. Levitt JE, Bedi H, Calfee CS, Gould MK, Matthay MA (2009) Identification of early acute lung injury at initial evaluation in an acute care setting prior to the onset of respiratory failure. Chest 135:936-943.
14. Thakur SJ, Trillo-Alvarez CA, Malinchoc MM, Kashyap R, Thakur L, Ahmed A, Reriani MK, Cartin-Ceba R, Sloan JA, Gajic O (2010) Towards the prevention of acute lung injury: a population based cohort study protocol. BMC Emerg Med 10:8-17.
15. Catchings TT, Beamer WC, Lundy L, Prough DS (1985) Adult respiratory distress syndrome secondary to ethylene glycol ingestion. Ann Emer Med 14:594-596. (Pubitemid 15040411)
16. Van Sickle D, Wenck MA, Belflower A, Drociuk D, Ferdinands J, Holguin F, Svendsen E, Bretous L, Jankelevich S, Gibson JJ, Garbe P, Moolenaar RL (2009) Acute health effects after exposure to chlorine gas released after a train derailment. The Am J Emer Med 27:1-7.
17. Wang SQ, Li CS, Song YG (2009) Multiply organ dysfunction syndrome due to tramadol intoxication alone. Am J Emer Med 27:903, e5-7.
18. Wu J, Sheng L, Ma Y, Gu J, Zhang M, Gan J, Xu S, Jiang G (2008) The analysis of risk factors of impacting mortality rate in severe multiple trauma patients with posttraumatic acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Emer Med 26:419-424. (Pubitemid 351503710)
19. Spragg RG, Bernard GR, Checkley W, Curtis JR, Gajic O, Guyatt G, Hall J, Israel E, Jain M, Needham DM, Randolph AG, Rubenfeld GD, Schoenfeld D, Thompson BT, Ware LB, Young D, Harabin AL () Beyond mortality: future clinical research in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 181:1121-7.
20. Cobb JP, Ognibene FP, Ingbar DH, Mann HJ, Hoyt DB, Angus DC, Thomas AV Jr, Danner RL, Suffredini AF (2009) Forging a critical alliance: Addressing the research needs of the United States critical illness and injury community. Crit Care Med 37:3158-3160.
21. Gajic O, Dabbagh O, Park PK, Adesanya A, Chang SY, Hou P, Anderson H 3rd, Hoth JJ, Mikkelsen ME, Gentile NT, Gong MN, Talmor D, Bajwa E, Watkins TR, Festic E, Yilmaz M, Iscimen R, Kaufman DA, Esper AM, Sadikot R, Douglas I, Sevransky J, Malinchoc M (2010) Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183:462-470.
22. von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gotzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP (2007) The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Ann Int Med 147:573-577. (Pubitemid 351664504)
23. Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE (1985) APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med 13:818-829. (Pubitemid 15250137)
24. Determann RM, Royakkers A, Wolthuis EK, Vlaar AP, Choi G, Paulus F, Hofstra JJ, de Graaff MJ, Korevaar JC, Schultz MJ (2010) Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with conventional tidal volumes for patients without acute lung injury: a preventive randomized controlled trial. Crit Care 14:R1-R31.
25. Gajic O, Dara SI, Mendez JL, Adesanya AO, Festic E, Caples SM, Rana R, St Sauver JL, Lymp JF, Afessa B, Hubmayr RD (2004) Ventilator-associated lung injury in patients without acute lung injury at the onset of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 32:1817-1824. (Pubitemid 39202355)
26. Aberle DR, Wiener-Kronish JP, Webb WR, Matthay MA (1988) Hydrostatic versus increased permeability pulmonary edema: diagnosis based on radiographic criteria in critically ill patients. Radiology 168:73-79.
27. Esteban A, Fernandez-Segoviano P, Frutos-Vivar F, Aramburu JA, Najera L, Ferguson ND, Alia I, Gordo F, Rios F (2004) Comparison of clinical criteria for the acute respiratory distress syndrome with autopsy findings. Ann Int Med 141:440-445.
28. Schwarz MI, Albert RK (2004) "Imitators" of the ARDS: implications for diagnosis and treatment. Chest 125:1530-1535. (Pubitemid 38501374)
29. National Organization for Rare Disorders (), (Accessed December 20, 2010, at http://www.rarediseases.org/search/rdbdetail-abstract.html?disname= Acute%20Respiratory%20Distress%20Syndrome.
30. Fowler AA, Hamman RF, Good JT, Benson KN, Baird M, Eberle DJ, Petty TL, Hyers TM (1983) Adult respiratory distress syndrome: risk with common predispositions. Ann Int Med 98:593-597. (Pubitemid 13091168)
31. Hudson LD, Milberg JA, Anardi D, Maunder RJ (1995) Clinical risks for development of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151:293-301.
32. Ferguson ND, Frutos-Vivar F, Esteban A, Gordo F, Honrubia T, Penuelas O, Algora A, Garcia G, Bustos A, Rodriguez I (2007) Clinical risk conditions for acute lung injury in the intensive care unit and hospital ward: a prospective observational study. Crit Care 11:R96.
33. Li G, Malinchoc M, Cartin-Ceba R, Venkata CV, Kor DJ, Peters SG, Hubmayr RD, Gajic O (2011) Eight-year trend of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183:59-66.
34. Personal communications with Drs. Michelle Gong and Ognjen Checklist for Lung Injury Prevention - CLIP., Accessed May 26, 2011, 2011 https://ephpublic. aecom.yu.edu/clip/default.aspx.
35. Li J, Murphy-Lavoie H, Bugas C, Martinez J, Preston C (1999) Complications of emergency intubation with and without paralysis. Am J Emer Med 17:141-143.
36. Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT, Nicolas JM, Nogue S, Ferrer M (1999) Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 354:1851-1858.
37. Koeman M, van der Ven AJ, Hak E, Joore HC, Kaasjager K, de Smet AG, Ramsay G, Dormans TP, Aarts LP, de Bel EE, Hustinx WN, van der Tweel I, Hoepelman AM, Bonten MJ (2006) Oral decontamination with chlorhexidine reduces the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 173:1348-1355. (Pubitemid 43900709)
38. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, Bion J, Parker MM, Jaeschke R, Reinhart K, Angus DC, Brun-Buisson C, Beale R, Calandra T, Dhainaut JF, Gerlach H, Harvey M, Marini JJ, Marshall J, Ranieri M, Ramsay G, Sevransky J, Thompson BT, Townsend S, Vender JS, Zimmerman JL, Vincent JL (2008) Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med 36:296-327.
39. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, Ressler J, Muzzin A, Knoblich B, Peterson E, Tomlanovich M (2001) Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. The New Engl J Med 345:1368-1377.
40. Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, Thompson BT, Hayden D, de Boisblanc B, Connors AF Jr, Hite RD, Harabin AL (2006) Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354:2564-2575. (Pubitemid 43882352)
41. Gong MN, Thompson BT, Williams P, Pothier L, Boyce PD, Christiani DC (2005) Clinical predictors of and mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome: potential role of red cell transfusion. Crit CareMed 33:1191-1198. (Pubitemid 40827364)
42. Institute for Healthcare Improvement, Accessed May 26, 2011 http://www.ihi.org/IHI/Topics/PatientSafety/SafetyGeneral/Tools/ SBARTechniqueforCommunicationASituationalBriefingModel.html.
43. Moss M, Bucher B, Moore FA, Moore EE, Parsons PE (1996) The role of chronic alcohol abuse in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults. Journal of the American Medical Association 50:54.
44. Selzer ML (1971) The Michigan alcoholism screening test: the quest for a new diagnostic instrument. Am J Psychiatry 127(12):1653-8.
45. Charlson M, Szatrowski TP, Peterson J, Gold J (1994) Validation of a combined comorbidity index. J Clin Epidemiol 47(11):1245-51. (Pubitemid 24361532)
46. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al (2003) Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 42(6):1206-52. (Pubitemid 37553153)
47. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al (2003) The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289(19):2560-72. (Pubitemid 37430158)
48. Hunt SA (2005) ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 46(6):e1-82.
49. (2007) Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 1):S42-S47.
50. Pauwels RA, Buist AS, Ma P, Jenkins CR, Hurd SS (2001) Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and World Health Organization Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD): executive summary. Respir Care 46(8):798-825. (Pubitemid 33759920)
51. Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR-3) (2007) Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma-Summary Report 2007. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120(5 Suppl):S94-138.
52. American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society International Multidisciplinary Consensus Classification of the Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias (2002) This joint statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) was adopted by the ATS board of directors, June 2001 and by the ERS Executive Committee, June 2001. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165(2):277-304.
53. Sonnenberg A, Everhart JE (1997) Health impact of peptic ulcer in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol 92(4):614-20. (Pubitemid 27184374)
54. Anthony PP, Ishak KG, Nayak NC, Poulsen HE, Scheuer PJ, Sobin LH (1978) The morphology of cirrhosis. Recommendations on definition, nomenclature, and classification by a working group sponsored by the World Health Organization. J Clin Pathol 31(5):395-414. (Pubitemid 8333033)
55. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease (2002) evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 39(2 Suppl 1):S1-266.
56. Levey AS, Eckardt KU, Tsukamoto Y et al (2005) Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int 67(6):2089-100. (Pubitemid 41623371)
57. Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP (2000) Myocardial infarction redefined-a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 36(3):959-69.
58. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, White HD (2007) Universal definition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 50(22):2173-95. (Pubitemid 350123680)
59. Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR et al (2006) ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): executive summary a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease) endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation. J Am Coll Cardiol 47(6):1239-312.
60. Adams HP Jr, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ et al (2007) Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Circulation 115(20):e478-534.
61. Knopman DS, DeKosky ST, Cummings JL et al (2001) Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 56(9):1143-53. (Pubitemid 32405708)
62. Karon JM, Buehler JW, Byers RH et al (1992) Projections of the number of persons diagnosed with AIDS and the number of immunosuppressed HIV-infected persons - United States, 1992-1994. MMWR Recomm Rep 41(RR-18):1-29.
63. Steinman TI, Becker BN, Frost AE et al (2001) Guidelines for the referral and management of patients eligible for solid organ transplantation. Transplantation 71(9):1189-204. (Pubitemid 32507132)
64. Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Draper EA et al (1991) The APACHE III prognostic system. Risk prediction of hospital mortality for critically ill hospitalized adults. Chest 100(6):1619-36.
65. Calandra T, Cohen J (2005) The international sepsis forum consensus conference on definitions of infection in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 33(7):1538-48. (Pubitemid 40980610)
66. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference (1992) Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 20(6):864-74.
67. Antonelli M, Levy M, Andrews PJ et al (2007) Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management. International Consensus Conference, Paris, France, 27-28 April 2006. Intensive Care Med 33(4):575-90.
68. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S et al (2001) Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 345(19):1368-77.
69. Gutierrez G, Reines HD, Wulf-Gutierrez ME (2004) Clinical review: hemorrhagic shock. Crit Care 8(5):373-81. (Pubitemid 39468060)
70. Hollenberg SM, Kavinsky CJ, Parrillo JE (1999) Cardiogenic shock. Ann Intern Med 131(1):47-59. (Pubitemid 29310017)
71. Hochman JS, Boland J, Sleeper LA et al (1995) Current spectrum of cardiogenic shock and effect of early revascularization on mortality. Results of an International Registry. SHOCK Registry Investigators Circulation 91(3):873-81.
72. Marik PE (2001) Aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia. N Engl J Med 344(9):665-71.
73. Banks PA (1997) Practice guidelines in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 92(3):377-86.
74. Sachdeva RC (1999) Near drowning. Crit Care Clin 15(2):281-96.
75. Bouchama A, Knochel JP (2002) Heat stroke. N Engl J Med 346(25):1978-88.
76. Voelkel NF (2002) High-altitude pulmonary edema. N Engl J Med 346(21):1606-7.
77. Derdak S (2007) Acute respiratory distress syndrome in trauma patients. J Trauma 62(6 Suppl):S58.
78. Arozullah AM, Khuri SF, Henderson WG, Daley J (2001) Development and validation of a multifactorial risk index for predicting postoperative pneumonia after major noncardiac surgery. Ann Intern Med 135(10):847-57. (Pubitemid 33070681)
79. Arozullah AM, Daley J, Henderson WG, Khuri SF (2000) Multifactorial risk index for predicting postoperative respiratory failure in men after major noncardiac surgery. The National Veterans Administration Surgical Quality Improvement Program. Ann Surg 232(2):242-53. (Pubitemid 30616726)
80. Zimmerman JE, Kramer AA, McNair DS, Malila FM (2006) Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) IV: hospital mortality assessment for today's critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 34(5):1297-310.
81. Rubenfeld GD, Angus DC, Pinsky MR, Curtis JR, Connors AF Jr, Bernard GR (1999) Outcomes research in critical care: results of the American Thoracic Society Critical Care Assembly Workshop on Outcomes Research. The Members of the Outcomes Research Workshop. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160(1):358-67.
82. Kleinman S, Caulfield T, Chan P et al (2004) Toward an understanding of transfusion-related acute lung injury: statement of a consensus panel. Transfusion 44(12):1774-89. (Pubitemid 39644064)
83. Toy P, Popovsky MA, Abraham E et al (2005) Transfusion-related acute lung injury: definition and review. Crit Care Med 33(4):721-6
84. McGregor JC, Rich SE, Harris AD et al (2007) A systematic review of the methods used to assess the association between appropriate antibiotic therapy and mortality in bacteremic patients. Clin Infect Dis 45(3):329-37. (Pubitemid 47101029)
85. Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE et al (2006) Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 34(6):1589-96 (Pubitemid 43810035)
86. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H et al (2004) Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 32(3):858-73. (Pubitemid 38344143)
87. Jimenez MF, Marshall JC (2001) Source control in the management of sepsis. Intensive Care Med 27(Suppl 1):S49-62.
88. Esteban A, Anzueto A, Frutos F et al (2002) Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a 28-day international study. JAMA 287(3):345-55. (Pubitemid 34251968)
89. Vincent JL, Akca S, De Mendonca A et al (2002) The epidemiology of acute respiratory failure in critically ill patients(*). Chest 121(5):1602-9. (Pubitemid 34499677)
90. Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J et al (1996) The SOFA (Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure. On behalf of the Working Group on Sepsis-Related Problems of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med 22(7):707-10.
91. Teasdale G, Jennett B (1974) Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 2(7872):81-4.
92. Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ et al (2002) The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: Validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 166(10):1338-44. (Pubitemid 35292699)
93. Ely EW, Inouye SK, Bernard GR et al (2001) Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: Validity and reliability of the Confusion Assessment Method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). Journal of the American Medical Association 286(21):2703-10. (Pubitemid 33135077)
94. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, Hayden DL, Schoenfeld DA, Ware LB (2007) Comparison of the SpO2/FiO2 Ratio and the PaO2/FiO2 Ratio in Patients with Acute Lung Injury or Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Chest.