Vitamin D and the heart

American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology

Volumn 305, Issue 9, 2013, Pages

  Chen, Songcang ^a   Gardner, David G ^b   Glenn, Denis J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Heart; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN E; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; COLLAGEN TYPE 3; CYCLIC AMP RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN; GELATINASE A; GELATINASE B; INTERLEUKIN 6; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MESSENGER RNA; MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN; OXIDIZED LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PREPROENDOTHELIN; PROCOLLAGEN; RENIN; RETINOID X RECEPTOR ALPHA; STROMELYSIN; SUPPRESSOR OF CYTOKINE SIGNALING 3; TISSUE INHIBITOR OF METALLOPROTEINASE; TISSUE INHIBITOR OF METALLOPROTEINASE 3; UROKINASE; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D RECEPTOR;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SIZE; CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM STRESS; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HEART DEVELOPMENT; HEART FAILURE; HEART FUNCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE EJECTION FRACTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE MASS; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HEART MUSCLE FIBROSIS; HEART VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HUMAN; LIGAND BINDING; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LYMPHOCYTIC INFILTRATION; NONHUMAN; PARATHYROID HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMOTER REGION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; REGULATORY MECHANISM; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

HEART; VITAMIN D;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; LIGANDS; MYOCARDIUM; RECEPTORS, CALCITRIOL; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VITAMIN D;

EID: 84887006579     PISSN: 03636119     EISSN: 15221490     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00322.2013     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Agarwal M, Phan A, Willix R Jr, Barber M, Schwarz ER. Is vitamin D deficiency associated with heart failure? A review of current evidence. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 16: 354-363, 2011.
2. Ameri P, Canepa M, Milaneschi Y, Spallarossa P, Leoncini G, Giallauria F, Strait JB, Lakatta EG, Brunelli C, Murialdo G, Ferrucci L. Relationship between vitamin D status and left ventricular geometry in a healthy population: results from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Intern Med 273: 253-262, 2013.
3. Amirlak I, Al Dhaheri W, Narchi H. Dilated cardiomyopathy secondary to nutritional rickets. Ann Trop Paediatr 28: 227-230, 2008.
4. Anderson JL, May HT, Horne BD, Bair TL, Hall NL, Carlquist JF, Lappe DL, Muhlestein JB. Relation of vitamin D deficiency to cardiovascular risk factors, disease status, and incident events in a general healthcare population. Am J Cardiol 106: 963-968, 2010.
5. Bae S, Yalamarti B, Ke Q, Choudhury S, Yu H, Karumanchi SA, Kroeger P, Thadhani R, Kang PM. Preventing progression of cardiac hypertrophy and development of heart failure by paricalcitol therapy in rats. Cardiovasc Res 91: 632-639, 2011.
6. Berk BC, Fujiwara K, Lehoux S. ECM remodeling in hypertensive heart disease. J Clin Invest 117: 568-575, 2007.
7. Bodyak N, Ayus JC, Achinger S, Shivalingappa V, Ke Q, Chen YS, Rigor DL, Stillman I, Tamez H, Kroeger PE, Wu-Wong RR, Karumanchi SA, Thadhani R, Kang PM. Activated vitamin D attenuates left ventricular abnormalities induced by dietary sodium in Dahl salt-sensitive animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 16810-16815, 2007.
8. Bostick RM, Kushi LH, Wu Y, Meyer KA, Sellers TA, Folsom AR. Relation of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy food intake to ischemic heart disease mortality among postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 149: 151-161, 1999.
9. Brondum-Jacobsen P, Benn M, Jensen GB, Nordestgaard BG. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, and early death: population-based study and meta-analyses of 18 and 17 studies. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 32: 2794-2802, 2012.
10. Bucharles S, Barberato SH, Stinghen AE, Gruber B, Piekala L, Dambiski AC, Custodio MR, Pecoits-Filho R. Impact of cholecalciferol treatment on biomarkers of inflammation and myocardial structure in hemodialysis patients without hyperparathyroidism. J Ren Nutr 22: 284-291, 2012.
11. Chehade H, Girardin E, Rosato L, Cachat F, Cotting J, Perez MH. Acute life-threatening presentation of vitamin D deficiency rickets. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 2681-2683, 2011.
12. Chen S, Costa CH, Nakamura K, Ribeiro RC, Gardner DG. Vitamin D-dependent suppression of human atrial natriuretic peptide gene promoter activity requires heterodimer assembly. J Biol Chem 274: 11260-11266, 1999.
13. Chen S, Cui J, Nakamura K, Ribeiro RC, West BL, Gardner DG. Coactivator-vitamin D receptor interactions mediate inhibition of the atrial natriuretic peptide promoter. J Biol Chem 275: 15039-15048, 2000.
14. Chen S, Gardner DG. Liganded vitamin D receptor displays antihypertrophic activity in the murine heart. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2012.
15. Chen S, Glenn DJ, Ni W, Grigsby CL, Olsen K, Nishimoto M, Law CS, Gardner DG. Expression of the vitamin d receptor is increased in the hypertrophic heart. Hypertension 52: 1106-1112, 2008.
16. Chen S, Law CS, Grigsby CL, Olsen K, Hong TT, Zhang Y, Yeghiazarians Y, Gardner DG. Cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of the vitamin D receptor gene results in cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation 124: 1838-1847, 2011.
17. Chen S, Wu J, Hsieh JC, Whitfield GK, Jurutka PW, Haussler MR, Gardner DG. Suppression of ANP gene transcription by liganded vitamin D receptor: involvement of specific receptor domains. Hypertension 31: 1338-1342, 1998.
18. Choi JH, Ke Q, Bae S, Lee JY, Kim YJ, Kim UK, Arbeeny C, Thadhani R, Kang PM. Doxercalciferol, a pro-hormone of vitamin D, prevents the development of cardiac hypertrophy in rats. J Card Fail 17: 1051-1058, 2011.
19. Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Renner W, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, Kinkeldei J, Boehm BO, Weihrauch G, Maerz W. Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med 168: 1340-1349, 2008.
20. Equils O, Naiki Y, Shapiro AM, Michelsen K, Lu D, Adams J, Jordan S. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced immune activation in human endothelial cells. Clin Exp Immunol 143: 58-64, 2006.
21. Evans D, Miller JB, Stockdale FE. Developmental patterns of expression and coexpression of myosin heavy chains in atria and ventricles of the avian heart. Dev Biol 127: 376-383, 1988.
22. Fall T, Shiue I, Bergea af Geijerstam P, Sundstrom J, Arnlov J, Larsson A, Melhus H, Lind L, Ingelsson E. Relations of circulating vitamin D concentrations with left ventricular geometry and function. Eur J Heart Fail 14: 985-991, 2012.
23. Gepner AD, Ramamurthy R, Krueger DC, Korcarz CE, Binkley N, Stein JH. A prospective randomized controlled trial of the effects of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular disease risk. PLoS One 7: e36617, 2012.
24. Gezmish O, Tare M, Parkington HC, Morley R, Porrello ER, Bubb KJ, Black MJ. Maternal vitamin D deficiency leads to cardiac hypertrophy in rat offspring. Reprod Sci 17: 168-176, 2009.
25. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 168: 1174-1180, 2008.
26. Gotsman I, Shauer A, Zwas DR, Hellman Y, Keren A, Lotan C, Admon D. Vitamin D deficiency is a predictor of reduced survival in patients with heart failure; vitamin D supplementation improves outcome. Eur J Heart Fail 14: 357-366, 2012.
27. Gupta GK, Agrawal T, DelCore MG, Mohiuddin SM, Agrawal DK. Vitamin D deficiency induces cardiac hypertrophy and inflammation in epicardial adipose tissue in hypercholesterolemic swine. Exp Mol Pathol 93: 82-90, 2012.
28. Gupta P, Tomar M, Radhakrishnan S, Shrivastava S. Hypocalcemic cardiomyopathy presenting as cardiogenic shock. Ann Pediatr Cardiol 4: 152-155, 2011.
29. Hsia J, Heiss G, Ren H, Allison M, Dolan NC, Greenland P, Heckbert SR, Johnson KC, Manson JE, Sidney S, Trevisan M. Calcium/vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular events. Circulation 115: 846-854, 2007.
30. Karakas M, Thorand B, Zierer A, Huth C, Meisinger C, Roden M, Rottbauer W, Peters A, Koenig W, Herder C. Low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D are associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction, especially in women: results from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg case-cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: 272-280, 2013.
31. Kim BG, Chang SK, Kim SM, Hwang JS, Jung JW. Dilated cardiomyopathy in a 2 month-old infant: a severe form of hypocalcemia with vitamin d deficient rickets. Korean Circ J 40: 201-203, 2010.
32. Kim DH, Sabour S, Sagar UN, Adams S, Whellan DJ. Prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in cardiovascular diseases (from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 to 2004). Am J Cardiol 102: 1540-1544, 2008.
33. Koleganova N, Piecha G, Ritz E, Gross ML. Calcitriol ameliorates capillary deficit and fibrosis of the heart in subtotally nephrectomized rats. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24: 778-787, 2009.
34. Kong J, Kim GH, Wei M, Sun T, Li G, Liu SQ, Li X, Bhan I, Zhao Q, Thadhani R, Li YC. Therapeutic effects of vitamin D analogs on cardiac hypertrophy in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am J Pathol 177: 622-631, 2010.
35. Lee JH, Gadi R, Spertus JA, Tang F, O'Keefe JH. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 107: 1636-1638, 2011.
36. Lemmilä S, Saha H, Virtanen V, Ala-Houhala I, Pasternack A. Effect of intravenous calcitriol on cardiac systolic and diastolic function in patients on hemodialysis. Am J Nephrol 18: 404-410, 1998.
37. 3 is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. J Clin Invest 110: 229-238, 2002.
38. Liu LC, Voors AA, van Veldhuisen DJ, van der Veer E, Belonje AM, Szymanski MK, Sillje HH, van Gilst WH, Jaarsma T, de Boer RA. Vitamin D status and outcomes in heart failure patients. Eur J Heart Fail 13: 619-625, 2011.
39. Maiya S, Sullivan I, Allgrove J, Yates R, Malone M, Brain C, Archer N, Mok Q, Daubeney P, Tulloh R, Burch M. Hypocalcaemia and vitamin D deficiency: an important, but preventable, cause of lifethreatening infant heart failure. Heart 94: 581-584, 2008.
40. 3 treatment reduces cardiac hypertrophy and left ventricular diameter in spontaneously hypertensive heart failure-prone (cp/+) rats independent of changes in serum leptin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 51: 559-564, 2008.
41. Manson JE. Vitamin D and the heart: why we need large-scale clinical trials. Cleve Clin J Med 77: 903-910, 2010.
42. Matias PJ, Jorge C, Ferreira C, Borges M, Aires I, Amaral T, Gil C, Cortez J, Ferreira A. Cholecalciferol supplementation in hemodialysis patients: effects on mineral metabolism, inflammation, and cardiac dimension parameters. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5: 905-911, 2010.
43. McGreevy C, Williams D. New insights about vitamin D and cardiovascular disease: a narrative review. Ann Intern Med 155: 820-826, 2011.
44. Meems LM, Cannon MV, Mahmud H, Voors AA, van Gilst WH, Sillje HH, Ruifrok WP, de Boer RA. The vitamin D receptor activator paricalcitol prevents fibrosis and diastolic dysfunction in a murine model of pressure overload. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 132: 282-289, 2012.
45. Melamed ML, Michos ED, Post W, Astor B. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med 168: 1629-1637, 2008.
46. Michos ED, Melamed ML. Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease risk. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 11: 7-12, 2008.
47. Mizobuchi M, Nakamura H, Tokumoto M, Finch J, Morrissey J, Liapis H, Slatopolsky E. Myocardial effects of VDR activators in renal failure. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 121: 188-192, 2010.
48. 3 actions on cell proliferation, size, gene expression, and receptor localization, in the HL-1 cardiac myocyte. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103: 533-537, 2007.
49. 3 regulation of myocardial growth and c-myc levels in the rat heart. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 213: 59-65, 1995.
50. 3 receptor protein in human heart. Cell Biol Int 20: 621-624, 1996.
51. Oh J, Weng S, Felton SK, Bhandare S, Riek A, Butler B, Proctor BM, Petty M, Chen Z, Schechtman KB, Bernal-Mizrachi L, Bernal-Mizrachi C. 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D inhibits foam cell formation and suppresses macrophage cholesterol uptake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation 120: 687-698, 2009.
52. Park CW, Oh YS, Shin YS, Kim CM, Kim YS, Kim SY, Choi EJ, Chang YS, Bang BK. Intravenous calcitriol regresses myocardial hypertrophy in hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Kidney Dis 33: 73-81, 1999.
53. Pilz S, Marz W, Wellnitz B, Seelhorst U, Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Dimai HP, Boehm BO, Dobnig H. Association of vitamin D deficiency with heart failure and sudden cardiac death in a large cross-sectional study of patients referred for coronary angiography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93: 3927-3935, 2008.
54. Pittas AG, Chung M, Trikalinos T, Mitri J, Brendel M, Patel K, Lichtenstein AH, Lau J, Balk EM. Systematic review: Vitamin D and cardiometabolic outcomes. Ann Intern Med 152: 307-314, 2010.
55. Prince RL, Austin N, Devine A, Dick IM, Bruce D, Zhu K. Effects of ergocalciferol added to calcium on the risk of falls in elderly high-risk women. Arch Intern Med 168: 103-108, 2008.
56. Przybylski R, McCune S, Hollis B, Simpson RU. Vitamin D deficiency in the spontaneously hypertensive heart failure [SHHF] prone rat. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 20: 641-646, 2010.
57. Rahman A, Hershey S, Ahmed S, Nibbelink K, Simpson RU. Heart extracellular matrix gene expression profile in the vitamin D receptor knockout mice. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103: 416-419, 2007.
58. Repo JM, Rantala IS, Honkanen TT, Mustonen JT, Koobi P, Tahvanainen AM, Niemela OJ, Tikkanen I, Rysa JM, Ruskoaho HJ, Porsti IH. Paricalcitol aggravates perivascular fibrosis in rats with renal insufficiency and low calcitriol. Kidney Int 72: 977-984, 2007.
59. Riek AE, Oh J, Sprague JE, Timpson A, de las Fuentes L, Bernal-Mizrachi L, Schechtman KB, Bernal-Mizrachi C. Vitamin D suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress promotes an antiatherogenic monocyte/macrophage phenotype in type 2 diabetic patients. J Biol Chem 287: 38482-38494, 2012.
60. Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 83: 754-759, 2006.
61. Shedeed SA. Vitamin D supplementation in infants with chronic congestive heart failure. Pediatr Cardiol 33: 713-719, 2012.
62. Simpson RU, Hershey SH, Nibbelink KA. Characterization of heart size and blood pressure in the vitamin D receptor knockout mouse. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103: 521-524, 2007.
63. 3 receptors and activities in muscle. J Biol Chem 260: 8882-8891, 1985.
64. Sun Q, Shi L, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Hu FB, Manson JE, Rexrode KM. Vitamin D intake and risk of cardiovascular disease in US men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 94: 534-542, 2011.
65. Szalay G, Sauter M, Haberland M, Zuegel U, Steinmeyer A, Kandolf R, Klingel K. Osteopontin: a fibrosis-related marker molecule in cardiac remodeling of enterovirus myocarditis in the susceptible host. Circ Res 104: 851-859, 2009.
66. Szeto FL, Reardon CA, Yoon D, Wang Y, Wong KE, Chen Y, Kong J, Liu SQ, Thadhani R, Getz GS, Li YC. Vitamin D receptor signaling inhibits atherosclerosis in mice. Mol Endocrinol 26: 1091-1101, 2012.
67. 3 (calcitriol) decreases atherosclerosis in mice by inducing regulatory T cells and immature dendritic cells with tolerogenic functions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30: 2495-2503, 2010.
68. Tamez H, Zoccali C, Packham D, Wenger J, Bhan I, Appelbaum E, Pritchett Y, Chang Y, Agarwal R, Wanner C, Lloyd-Jones D, Cannata J, Thompson BT, Andress D, Zhang W, Singh B, Zehnder D, Pachika A, Manning WJ, Shah A, Solomon SD, Thadhani R. Vitamin D reduces left atrial volume in patients with left ventricular hypertrophy and chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 164: 902-909, 2012.
69. Thadhani R, Appelbaum E, Pritchett Y, Chang Y, Wenger J, Tamez H, Bhan I, Agarwal R, Zoccali C, Wanner C, Lloyd-Jones D, Cannata J, Thompson BT, Andress D, Zhang W, Packham D, Singh B, Zehnder D, Shah A, Pachika A, Manning WJ, Solomon SD. Vitamin D therapy and cardiac structure and function in patients with chronic kidney disease: the PRIMO randomized controlled trial. JAMA 307: 674-684, 2012.
70. Thierry-Palmer M, Carlyle KS, Williams MD, Tewolde T, Caines-McKenzie S, Bayorh MA, Emmett NL, Harris-Hooker SA, Sanford GL, Williams EF. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are inversely associated with blood pressure of Dahl salt-sensitive rats. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 66: 255-261, 1998.
71. Timms PM, Mannan N, Hitman GA, Noonan K, Mills PG, Syndercombe-Court D, Aganna E, Price CP, Boucher BJ. Circulating MMP9, vitamin D and variation in the TIMP-1 response with VDR genotype: mechanisms for inflammatory damage in chronic disorders? QJM 95: 787-796, 2002.
72. Tiosano D, Schwartz Y, Braver Y, Hadash A, Gepstein V, Weisman Y, Lorber A. The renin-angiotensin system, blood pressure, and heart structure in patients with hereditary vitamin D-resistance rickets (HVDRR). J Bone Miner Res 26: 2252-2260, 2011.
73. Tishkoff DX, Nibbelink KA, Holmberg KH, Dandu L, Simpson RU. Functional vitamin D receptor (VDR) in the t-tubules of cardiac myocytes: VDR knockout cardiomyocyte contractility. Endocrinology 149: 558-564, 2008.
74. Trivedi DP, Doll R, Khaw KT. Effect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) supplementation on fractures and mortality in men and women living in the community: randomised double blind controlled trial. BMJ 326: 469, 2003.
75. Uysal S, Kalayci AG, Baysal K. Cardiac functions in children with vitamin D deficiency rickets. Pediatr Cardiol 20: 283-286, 1999.
76. van Ballegooijen AJ, Snijder MB, Visser M, van den Hurk K, Kamp O, Dekker JM, Nijpels G, Stehouwer CD, Henry RM, Paulus WJ, Brouwer IA. Vitamin D in relation to myocardial structure and function after eight years of follow-up: the Hoorn study. Ann Nutr Metab 60: 69-77, 2012.
77. van Ballegooijen AJ, Visser M, Cotch MF, Arai AE, Garcia M, Harris TB, Launer LJ, Eiriksdottir G, Gudnason V, Brouwer IA. Serum vitamin D and parathyroid hormone in relation to cardiac structure and function: the ICELAND-MI substudy of AGES-Reykjavik. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: 2544-2552, 2013.
78. 3 receptors identified in the rat heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 18: 67-72, 1986.
79. Wang GF, Nikovits W Jr, Bao ZZ, Stockdale FE. Irx4 forms an inhibitory complex with the vitamin D and retinoic X receptors to regulate cardiac chamber-specific slow MyHC3 expression. J Biol Chem 276: 28835-28841, 2001.
80. Wang GF, Nikovits W Jr, Schleinitz M, Stockdale FE. A positive GATA element and a negative vitamin D receptor-like element control atrial chamber-specific expression of a slow myosin heavy-chain gene during cardiac morphogenesis. Mol Cell Biol 18: 6023-6034, 1998.
81. Wang GF, Nikovits W, Schleinitz M, Stockdale FE. Atrial chamberspecific expression of the slow myosin heavy chain 3 gene in the embryonic heart. J Biol Chem 271: 19836-19845, 1996.
82. Wang L, Manson JE, Song Y, Sesso HD. Systematic review: Vitamin D and calcium supplementation in prevention of cardiovascular events. Ann Intern Med 152: 315-323, 2010.
83. Wasson LT, Shimbo D, Rubin MR, Shaffer JA, Schwartz JE, Davidson KW. Is vitamin D deficiency a risk factor for ischemic heart disease in patients with established cardiovascular disease? 10-year follow-up of the Nova Scotia Health Survey. Int J Cardiol 148: 387-389, 2011.
84. Weber KT, Weglicki WB, Simpson RU. Macro-and micronutrient dyshomeostasis in the adverse structural remodelling of myocardium. Cardiovasc Res 81: 500-508, 2009.
85. Weishaar RE, Kim SN, Saunders DE, Simpson RU. Involvement of vitamin D3 with cardiovascular function. III. Effects on physical and morphological properties. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 258: E134-E142, 1990.
86. 3 and cardiovascular function in rats. J Clin Invest 79: 1706-1712, 1987.
87. Weng S, Sprague JE, Oh J, Riek AE, Chin K, Garcia M, Bernal-Mizrachi C. Vitamin D deficiency induces high blood pressure and accelerates atherosclerosis in mice. PLoS One 8: e54625, 2013.
88. Wilke RA, Simpson RU, Mukesh BN, Bhupathi SV, Dart RA, Ghebranious NR, McCarty CA. Genetic variation in CYP27B1 is associated with congestive heart failure in patients with hypertension. Pharmacogenomics 10: 1789-1797, 2009.
89. Witham MD, Crighton LJ, Gillespie ND, Struthers AD, McMurdo ME. The effects of vitamin D supplementation on physical function and quality of life in older patients with heart failure: a randomized controlled trial. Circ Heart Fail 3: 195-201, 2010.
90. Witham MD, Dove FJ, Sugden JA, Doney AS, Struthers AD. The effect of vitamin D replacement on markers of vascular health in stroke patients-A randomised controlled trial. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 22: 864-870, 2012.
91. Witte KK, Nikitin NP, Parker AC, von Haehling S, Volk HD, Anker SD, Clark AL, Cleland JG. The effect of micronutrient supplementation on quality-of-life and left ventricular function in elderly patients with chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J 26: 2238-2244, 2005.
92. Wu J, Garami M, Cao L, Li Q, Gardner DG. 1,25(OH)2D3 suppresses expression and secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide from cardiac myocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 268: E1108-E1113, 1995.
93. 3, and retinoic acid antagonize endothelin-stimulated hypertrophy of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes. J Clin Invest 97: 1577-1588, 1996.
94. Xiang W, Kong J, Chen S, Cao LP, Qiao G, Zheng W, Liu W, Li X, Gardner DG, Li YC. Cardiac hypertrophy in vitamin D receptor knockout mice: role of the systemic and cardiac renin-angiotensin systems. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288: E125-E132, 2005.
95. Yee YK, Chintalacharuvu SR, Lu J, Nagpal S. Vitamin D receptor modulators for inflammation and cancer. Mini Rev Med Chem 5: 761-778, 2005.
96. Yuan W, Pan W, Kong J, Zheng W, Szeto FL, Wong KE, Cohen R, Klopot A, Zhang Z, Li YC. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses renin gene transcription by blocking the activity of the cyclic AMP response element in the renin gene promoter. J Biol Chem 282: 29821-29830, 2007.
97. Zeller R, Bloch KD, Williams BS, Arceci RJ, Seidman CE. Localized expression of the atrial natriuretic factor gene during cardiac embryogenesis. Genes Dev 1: 693-698, 1987.
98. Zhang Y, Kong J, Deb DK, Chang A, Li YC. Vitamin D receptor attenuates renal fibrosis by suppressing the renin-angiotensin system. J Am Soc Nephrol 21: 966-973, 2010.
99. 3 in adult rat cardiomyocytes. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 121: 159-163, 2010.
100. Zhou C, Lu F, Cao K, Xu D, Goltzman D, Miao D. Calciumindependent and 1,25(OH)2D3-dependent regulation of the renin-angiotensin system in 1alpha-hydroxylase knockout mice. Kidney Int 74: 170-179, 2008.
101. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Gotting C, Dronow O, Fuchs U, Kuhn J, Kleesiek K, Tenderich G, Koerfer R. Poor outcome in end-stage heart failure patients with low circulating calcitriol levels. Eur J Heart Fail 10: 321-327, 2008.