Global changes in dryland vegetation dynamics (1988-2008) assessed by satellite remote sensing: Comparing a new passive microwave vegetation density record with reflective greenness data

Biogeosciences

Volumn 10, Issue 10, 2013, Pages 6657-6676

  Andela, N ^a   Liu, Y Y ^b,d   M Van Dijk, A I J ^c,d   De Jeu, R A M ^a   McVicar, T R ^d  

^a VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^c AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^d CSIRO   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CHLOROPHYLL; CLIMATE VARIATION; DATA SET; GLOBAL CHANGE; HERB; LAND MANAGEMENT; NDVI; OPTICAL DEPTH; REFLECTANCE; SATELLITE IMAGERY; SAVANNA; VEGETATION DYNAMICS;

EID: 84886818237     PISSN: 17264170     EISSN: 17264189     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/bg-10-6657-2013     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Adamoli, J., Sennhauser, E., Acero, J. M., and Rescia, A.: Stress and disturbance: Vegetation dynamics in the dry Chaco region of Argentina, J. Biogeogr., 17, 491-500, 1990.
2. Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K., Chenchouni, H., Bachelet, D., Mc-Dowell, N., Vennetier,M., Kitzberger, T., Rigling, A., Breshears, D. D., Hogg, E. H., Gonzalez, P., Fensham, R., Zhang, Z., Castro, J., Demidova, N., Lim, J. H., Allard, G., Running, S. W., Semerci, A., and Cobb, N.: A global overview of drought and heatinduced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests, Forest Ecol. Manage., 259, 660-684, 2010.
3. Anyamba, A. and Tucker, C. J.: Analysis of Sahelian vegetation dynamics using NOAA-AVHRR NDVI data from 1981-2003, J. Arid Environ., 63, 596-614, 2005. (Pubitemid 40984989)
4. Archer, S., Schimel, D. S., and Holland, E. A.: Mechanisms of shrubland expansion: land use, climate or CO2?, Clim. Change, 29, 91-99, 1995.
5. Archer, S., Boutton, T. W., and Hibbard, K. A.: Trees in grasslands: biogeochemical consequences of woody plant expansion, in: Global Biogeochemical Cycles in the Climate System, 115-138, Academic Pres, San Diego, 2001.
6. Archibald, S. and Scholes, R. J.: Leaf green-up in a semi-arid African savanna-separating tree and grass responses to environmental cues, J. Veg. Sci., 18, 583-594, 2007. (Pubitemid 46883248)
7. Archibald, S., Roy, D. P., van Wilgen, B. W., and Scholes, R. J.: What limits fire? An examination of drivers of burnt area in Southern Africa, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 613-630, 2009.
8. Archibald, S., Scholes, R. J., Roy, D. P., Roberts, G., and Boschetti, L.: Southern African fire regimes as revealed by remote sensing, Int. J. Wildland Fire, 19, 861-878, 2010.
9. Asner, G. P.: Biophysical and biochemical sources of variability in canopy reflectance, Remote Sens. Environ., 64, 234-253, 1998. (Pubitemid 29363293)
10. Asrar, G., Fuchs, M., Kanemasu, E. T., and Hatfield, J. L.: Estimating absorbed photosynthetic radiation and leaf area index from spectral reflectance in wheat, Agron. J., 76, 300-306, 1984.
11. Asner, G. P., Borghi, C. E., and Ojeda, R. A.: Desertification in central Argentina: changes in ecosystem carbon and nitrogen from imaging spectroscopy, Ecol. Appl., 13, 629-648, 2003. (Pubitemid 38012510)
12. Asner, G. P., Elmore, A. J., Olander, L. P., Martin, R. E., and Harris, A. T.: Grazing systems, ecosystem responses, and global change, Annu. Rev. Env. Resour., 29, 261-299, 2004.
13. Bai, Z. G., Dent, D. L., Olsson, L., and Schaepman, M. E.: Proxy global assessment of land degradation, Soil Use Manage., 24, 223-234, 2008.
14. Beck, H. E., McVicar, T. R., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., Schellekens, J., de Jeu, R. A. M., and Bruijnzeel, L. A.: Global evaluation of four AVHRR-NDVI data sets: Intercomparison and assessment against Landsat imagery, Remote Sens. Environ., 115, 2547-2563, 2011.
15. Bond, W. J. and Keeley, J. E.: Fire as a global ?herbivore?: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems, Trends Ecol. Evol., 20, 387-394, 2005. (Pubitemid 40817318)
16. Bond, W. J. and Midgley, G. F.: Carbon dioxide and the uneasy interactions of trees and savannah grasses, Philos. T. R. Soc. B, 367, 601-612, 2012.
17. Bond,W. J., Midgley, G. F., andWoodward, F. I.: The importance of low atmospheric CO2 and fire in promoting the spread of grasslands and savannas, Glob. Change Biol., 9, 973-982, 2003. (Pubitemid 36941473)
18. Bond, W. J., Woodward, F. I., and Midgley, G. F.: The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire, New Phytol., 165, 525-538, 2005. (Pubitemid 40180747)
19. Bowman, D. M. J. S., Balch, J. K., Artaxo, P., Bond,W. J., Carlson, J. M., Cochrane, M. A., D?Antonio, C. M., DeFries, R. S., Doyle, J. C., Harrison, S. P., Johnston, F. H., Keeley, J. E., Krawchuk, M. A., Kull, C. A., Marston, J. B., Moritz, M. A., Prentice, I. C., Roos, C. I., Scott, A. C., Swetnam, T. W., Werf, v. d. G. R., and Pyne, S. J.: Fire in the Earth system, Science, 324, 481-484, 2009.
20. Breshears, D. D.: The grassland-forest continuum: trends in ecosystem properties for woody plant mosaics?, Front. Ecol. Environ., 4, 96-104, 2006.
21. Briggs, J. M., Knapp, A. K., Blair, J. M., Heisler, J. L., Hoch, G. A., Lett, M. S., and McCarron, J. K.: An ecosystem in transition: causes and consequences of the conversion of mesic grassland to shrubland, BioScience, 55, 243-254, 2005. (Pubitemid 40383774)
22. Brown, M. E., Pinzón, J. E., Didan, K., Morisette, J. T., and Tucker, C. J.: Evaluation of the consistency of long-term NDVI time series derived from AVHRR, SPOT-Vegetation, SeaWiFS, MODIS, and Landsat ETM+ sensors, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 44, 1787-1793, 2006. (Pubitemid 44109500)
23. Buitenwerf, R., Bond, W. J., Stevens, N., and Trollope, W. S. W.: Increased tree densities in South African savannas:> 50 years of data suggests CO2 as a driver, Glob. Change Biol., 18, 675-684, 2011.
24. Carlson, T. N. and Ripley, D. A.: On the relation between NDVI, fractional vegetation cover, and leaf area index, Remote Sens. Environ., 62, 241-252, 1997. (Pubitemid 28052010)
25. de Jeu, R. A. M.: Retrieval of Land Surface Parameters using Passive Microwave Remote Sensing, Ph.D. thesis, VU University, Amsterdam, 2003.
26. de Jong, R., de Bruin, S., de Wit, A., Schaepman, M. E., and Dent, D. L.: Analysis of monotonic greening and browning trends from global NDVI time-series, Remote Sens. Environ., 115, 692-702, 2011.
27. Dorigo,W., de Jeu, R. A. M., Chung, D., Parinussa, R. M., Liu, Y. Y. Wagner, W., and Fernández-Prieto, D.: Evaluating global trends (1988-2010) in harmonized multi-satellite surface soil moisture, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L18405, doi:10.1029/2012GL052988, 2012.
28. Donohue, R. J., McVicar, T. R., and Roderick, M. L.: Climaterelated trends in Australian vegetation cover as inferred from satellite observations, 1981-2006, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 1025-1039, 2009.
29. Donohue, R. J., Roderick, M. L., McVicar, T. R., and Farquhar, G. D.: Impact of CO2 fertilisation on maximum foliage cover across the globe's warm, arid environments, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 3031-3035, doi:10.1002/grl.50563, 2013.
30. Dore, M. H. I.: Climate change and changes in global precipitation patterns: What do we know?, Environ. Int., 31, 1167-1181, 2005. (Pubitemid 41208124)
31. Drake, B. G., Gonzàlez-Meler, M. A., and Long, S. P.: More efficient plants: a consequence of rising atmospheric CO2?, Ann. Rev. Plant Biol., 48, 609-639, 1997.
32. Evans, J. and Geerken, R.: Discrimination between climate and human-induced dryland degradation, J. Arid Environ., 57, 535-554, 2004. (Pubitemid 38503782)
33. Farquhar, G. D.: Carbon dioxide and vegetation, Science, 278, 1411-1411, 1997.
34. Fensham, R. J., Fairfax, R. J., and Archer, S. R.: Rainfall, land use and woody vegetation cover change in semi-arid Australian savanna, J. Ecol., 93, 596-606, 2005. (Pubitemid 40801926)
35. Fensholt, R., and Proud, S. R.: Evaluation of Earth Observation based global long term vegetation trends-Comparing GIMMS and MODIS global NDVI time series, Remote Sens. Environ., 119, 131-147, 2012.
36. Fensholt, R., Langanke, T., Rasmussen, K., Reenberg, A., Prince, S. D., Tucker, C. J., Scholes, R. J., Bao Le, Q., Bondeau, A., Eastman, R., Epstein, H., Gaughan, A. E., Hellden, U., Mbow, C., Olsson, L., Paruelo, J., Schweitzer, C., Seaquist, J., and Wessels, K.: Greenness in semi-arid areas across the globe 1981-2007-an Earth Observing Satellite based analysis of trends and drivers, Remote Sens. Environ., 121, 144-158, 2012.
37. Flannigan, M. D., Krawchuk, M. A., De Groot,W. J.,Wotton, B. M., and Gowman, L. M.: Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire, Int. J. Wildland Fire, 18, 483-507, 2009.
38. Franks, J. P., Adams, M. A., Amthor, J. S., Barbour, M. M., Berry, J. A., Ellsworth, D. S., Farquhar, G. D., Ghannoum, O., Lloyd, J. McDowell, N., Norby, R. J., Tissue, D. T., and von Caemmerer, S.: Sensitivity of plants to changing atmospheric CO2 concentration: from the geological past to the next century, New Phytol., 197, 1077-1094, 2013.
39. Giglio, L., Loboda, T., Roy, D. P., Quayle, B., and Justice, C. O.: An active-fire based burned area mapping algorithm for the MODIS sensor, Remote Sens. Environ., 113, 408-420, 2009.
40. Gouweleeuw, B. T., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., Guerschman, J. P., Dyce, P., and Owe, M.: Space-based passive microwave soil moisture retrievals and the correction for a dynamic open water fraction, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 1635-1645, doi:10.5194/hess-16-1635-2012, 2012.
41. Grau, H. R., Gasparri, N. I., and Aide, T. M.: Agriculture expansion and deforestation in seasonally dry forests of north-west Argentina, Environ. Conserv., 32, 140-148, 2005. (Pubitemid 41391668)
42. Hansen, M. C., DeFries, R. S., Townshend, J. R. G., and Sohlberg, R.: Global land cover classification at 1 km spatial resolution using a classification tree approach, Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1331-1364, 2000. (Pubitemid 30242138)
43. Heisler, J. L., Briggs, J. M., and Knapp, A. K.: Long-term patterns of shrub expansion in a C4-dominated grassland: fire frequency and the dynamics of shrub cover and abundance, Am. J. Bot., 90, 423-428, 2003. (Pubitemid 38161893)
44. Herrmann, S. M., Anyamba, A., and Tucker, C. J.: Recent trends in vegetation dynamics in the African Sahel and their relationship to climate, Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 394-404, 2005. (Pubitemid 41608735)
45. Higgins, S. I. and Scheiter, S.: Atmospheric CO2 forces abrupt vegetation shifts locally, but not globally, Nature, 488, 209-212, 2012.
46. Hijmans, R. J., Cameron, S. E., Parra, J. L., Jones, P. G., and Jarvis, A.: Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas, Int. J. Climatol., 25, 1965-1978, 2005. (Pubitemid 43013915)
47. House, J. I., Archer, S., Breshears, D. D., and Scholes, R. J.: Conundrums in mixed woody-herbaceous plant systems, J. Biogeogr., 30, 1763-1777, 2003. (Pubitemid 37399760)
48. Jackson, T. J., Schmugge, T. J., andWang, J. R.: Passive microwave sensing of soil moisture under vegetation canopies, Water Resour. Res., 18, 1137-1142, 1982. (Pubitemid 13265782)
49. Jahnke, H. E.: Livestock production systems and livestock development in tropical Africa, Kieler Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk: Kiel, available from: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf-docs/pnaan484. pdf, 1982.
50. Jeyaseelan, A. T., Roy, P. S., and Young, S. S.: Persistent changes in NDVI between 1982 and 2003 over India using AVHRR GIMMS (Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies) data, Int. J. Remote Sens., 28, 4927-4946, 2007. (Pubitemid 351444926)
51. Jones, P. and Harris, I.: CRU Time Series (TS) high resolution gridded datasets, university of East Anglia Research Unit (CRU) NCAS British Atmospheric Data Centre, available from http://badc.nerc.ac.uk/view/badc.nerc.ac.uk-ATOM- dataent-1256223773328276, 2008.
52. Jones, M. O., Jones, L. A., Kimball, J. S., and McDonald, K. C.: Satellite passive microwave remote sensing for monitoring global land surface phenology, Remote Sens. Environ., 115, 1102-1114, 2011.
53. Jones, M. O., Kimball, J. S., Jones, L. A., and McDonald, K. C.: Satellite passive microwave detection of North America start of season, Remote Sens. Environ., 123, 324-333, 2012.
54. Kaufman, Y. J., Justice, C. O., Flynn, L. P., Kendall, J. D., Prins, E. M., Giglio, L., Ward, D. E., Menzel, W. P., and Setzer, A. W.: Potential global fire monitoring from EOS-MODIS, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32 215-32, 1998.
55. Keenan, T. F., Hollinger, D. Y., Bohrer, G., Dragoni, D., Munger, J. W., Schmid, H. P., and Richardson, A. D.: Increase in forest water-use efficiency as atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations rise, Nature, 499, 324-327, 2013.
56. Kirdiashev, K. P., Chukhlantsev, A. A., and Shutko, A. M.: Microwave radiation of the Earth's surface in the presence of vegetation cover, Radio Eng. Electron. P., 24, 37-44, 1979. (Pubitemid 10459717)
57. Koenig,W. D.: Global patterns of environmental synchrony and the Moran effect, Ecography, 25, 283-288, 2002. (Pubitemid 34565003)
58. Lehmann, C. E. R., Archibald, S. A., Hoffmann, W. A., and Bond, W. J.: Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome, New Phytol., 191, 197-209, 2011.
59. Liu, Y. Y., de Jeu, R. A. M., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., and Owe, M.: TRMM-TMI satellite observed soil moisture and vegetation density (1998-2005) show strong connection with El Niño in eastern Australia, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L15401, doi:10.1029/2007GL030311, 2007. (Pubitemid 47521280)
60. Liu, Y. Y., de Jeu, R. A. M., McCabe, M. F., Evans, J. P., and van Dijk, A. I. J. M.: Global long-term passive microwave satellitebased retrievals of vegetation optical depth, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L18402, doi:10.1029/ 2011GL048684, 2011a.
61. Liu, Y. Y., Parinussa, R. M., Dorigo, W. A., De Jeu, R. A. M., Wagner, W., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., McCabe, M. F., and Evans, J. P.: Developing an improved soil moisture dataset by blending passive and active microwave satellite-based retrievals, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 425-436, doi:10.5194/hess-15-425-2011, 2011b.
62. Liu, Y. Y., Dijk, A. I. J. M., McCabe, M. F., Evans, J. P., and de Jeu, R. A. M.: Global vegetation biomass change (1988-2008) and attribution to environmental and human drivers, Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 22, 692-705, doi:10.1111/geb.12024, 2013a.
63. Liu, Y. Y., Evans, J. P., McCabe, M. F., de Jeu, R. A. M., van Dijk, A. I. J. M., Dolman, A. J., and Saizen, I.: Changing Climate and Overgrazing Are Decimating Mongolian Steppes, PloS one, 8, e57599, doi:10.1371/journal.pone. 0057599, 2013b.
64. Lu, H., Raupach, M. R., McVicar, T. R., and Barrett, D. J.: Decomposition of vegetation cover into woody and herbaceous components using AVHRR NDVI time series, Remote Sens. Environ., 86, 1-18, 2003. (Pubitemid 36832466)
65. McMahon, S. M., Parker, G. G., and Miller, D. R.: Evidence for a recent increase in forest growth, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 3611-3615, 2010.
66. McVicar, T. R. and Jupp, D. L. B.: The current and potential operational uses of remote sensing to aid decisions on drought exceptional circumstances in Australia: a review, Agr. Syst., 57, 399-468, 1998. (Pubitemid 28397757)
67. McVicar, T. R., Roderick, M. L., Donohue, R. J., Li, L. T., Van Niel, T. G., Thomas, A., Grieser, J., Jhajharia, D., Himri, Y., Mahowald, N. M., Mescherskaya, A. V., Kruger, A. C., Rehman, S., Dinpashoh, Y., and Rehman, S.: Global review and synthesis of trends in observed terrestrial near-surface wind speeds: Implications for evaporation, J. Hydrol., 416-417, 182-205, 2012.
68. Meesters, A. G. C. A., De Jeu, R. A. M., and Owe, M.: Analytical derivation of the vegetation optical depth from the microwave polarization difference index, IEEE Geosci. Remote S., 2, 121-123, 2005. (Pubitemid 40680157)
69. Monsi, M. and Saeki, T.: On the factor light in plant communities and its importance for matter production, Ann. Bot.-London, 95, 549-567, 2005. (Pubitemid 41238693)
70. NASA: Land Processes Distribute Active Archive Center, MODIS/Terra+Aqua Land Cover Type Yearly L3 Global 0.05Deg CMG V005, US Geological Survey, available from: ftp: //e4ftl01.cr.usgs.gov/MOTA/MCD12C1.005/2008.01.01/, 2008.
71. Neigh, C. S., Tucker, C. J., and Townshend, J. R.: North American vegetation dynamics observed with multi-resolution satellite data, Remote Sens. Environ., 112, 1749-1772, 2008.
72. Nemani, R. R., Keeling, C. D., Hashimoto, H., Jolly, W. M., Piper, S. C., Tucker, C. J., Myneni, R. B., and Running, S.W.: Climatedriven increases in global terrestrial net primary production from 1982 to 1999, Science, 300, 1560-1563, 2003. (Pubitemid 36682885)
73. Northup, B. K., Zitzer, S. F., Archer, S., McMurtry, C. R., and Boutton, T. W.: Above-ground biomass and carbon and nitrogen content of woody species in a subtropical thornscrub parkland, J. Arid Environ., 62, 23-43, 2005. (Pubitemid 40406330)
74. Oldeland, J., Dorigo, W., Wesuls, D., and Jürgens, N.: Mapping bush encroaching species by seasonal differences in hyperspectral imagery, Remote Sens., 2, 1416-1438, 2010.
75. Ovington, J. D., Haitkamp, D., and Lawrence, D. B.: Plant biomass and productivity of prairie, savanna, oakwood, and maize field ecosystems in central Minnesota, Ecology, 44, 52-63, 1963.
76. Owe, M., de Jeu, R. A. M., and Walker, J.: A methodology for surface soil moisture and vegetation optical depth retrieval using the microwave polarization difference index, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 39, 1643-1654, 2001. (Pubitemid 32933003)
77. Owe, M., de Jeu, R. A. M., and Holmes, T. R. H.: Multi-Sensor Historical Climatology of Satellite-Derived Global Land Surface Moisture, J. Geophys. Res., 113, F01002, doi:10.1029/2007JF000769, 2008.
78. Pettorelli, N., Vik, J. O., Mysterud, A., Gaillard, J. M., Tucker, C. J., and Stenseth, N. C.: Using the satellite-derived NDVI to assess ecological responses to environmental change, Trends Ecol. Evol., 20, 503-510, 2005. (Pubitemid 41207086)
79. Piao, S. L., Fang, J. Y., Zhou, L. M., Guo, Q. H., Henderson, M., Ji, W., Li, Y., and Tao, S.: Interannual variations of monthly and seasonal normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in China from 1982 to 1999, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4401, doi:10.1029/2002JD002848, 2003.
80. Reich, P. B., Walters, M. B., and Ellsworth, D. S.: From tropics to tundra: global convergence in plant functioning, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 13730-13734, 1997. (Pubitemid 28009651)
81. Reich, P. B., Wright, I. J., Cavender-Bares, J., Craine, J. M., Oleksyn, J., Westoby, M., and Walters, M. B.: The evolution of plant functional variation: traits, spectra, and strategies, Int. J. Plant Sci., 164, S143-S164, 2003. (Pubitemid 36832497)
82. Roberts, D. A., Smith, M. O., and Adams, J. B.: Green vegetation, nonphotosynthetic vegetation, and soils in AVIRIS data, Remote Sens. Environ., 44, 255-269, 1993. (Pubitemid 23383187)
83. Roberts, D. A., Gardner, M., Church, R., Ustin, S., Scheer, G., and Green, R. O.: Mapping chaparral in the Santa Monica Mountains using multiple endmember spectral mixture models, Remote Sens. Environ., 65, 267-279, 1998. (Pubitemid 29360703)
84. Robinson, T. P., Franceschini, G., andWint,W.: The Food and Agriculture Organization's gridded livestock of the world, Veterinaria Italiana, 43, 745-751, 2007.
85. Roderick, M. L., Berry, S. L., Saunders, A. R., and Noble, I. R.: On the relationship between the composition, morphology and function of leaves, Funct. Ecol., 13, 696-710, 1999a.
86. Roderick, M. L., Noble, I. R., and Cridland, S. W.: Estimating woody and herbaceous vegetation cover from time series satellite observations, Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 8, 501-508, 1999b.
87. Roderick, M. L., Berry, S. L., and Noble, I. R.: A framework for understanding the relationship between environment and vegetation based on the surface area to volume ratio of leaves, Funct. Ecol., 14, 423-437, 2000.
88. Rossatto, D. R., da Silveira Lobo Sternberg, L., and Franco, A. C.: The partitioning of water uptake between growth forms in a Neotropical savanna: do herbs exploit a third water source niche?, Plant Biol., 15, 84-92, doi:10.1111/j.1438-8677.2012.00618.x, 2013.
89. Rouse, J. W., Haas, R. H., Schell, J. A., Deering, D. W., and Harlan, J. C.: Monitoring the vernal advancement of retrogradation of natural vegetation, NASA/GSFC, Tech. rep., Greenbeld, MD, 1974.
90. Sankaran, M., Hanan, N. P., Scholes, R. J., Ratnam, J., Augustine, D. J., Cade, B. S., Gignoux, J., Higgins, S. I., Le Roux, X., Ludwig, F., Ardo, J., Banyikwa, F., Bronn, A., Bucini, G., Caylor, K. K., Coughenour, M. B., Diouf, A., Ekaya, W., Feral, C. J., February, E. C., Frost, P. H., Hiernayx, P., Hrabar, H., Metzger, K. L., Prins, H. H. T., Ringrose, S., Sea, W., Tews, J., Worden, J., and Zambatis, N.: Determinants of woody cover in African savannas, Nature, 438, 846-849, 2005. (Pubitemid 41753065)
91. Sankey, J. B., Ravi, S., Wallace, C. S. A., Webb, R. H., and Huxman, T. E.: Quantifying soil surface change in degraded drylands: Shrub encroachment and effects of fire and vegetation removal in a desert grassland, J. Geophys. Res., 117, G02025, doi:10.1029/2012JG002002, 2012.
92. Sen, P. K.: Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall's tau, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63, 1379-1389, 1968.
93. Shi, J., Jackson, T., Tao, J., Du, J., Bindlish, R., Lu, L., and Chen, K. S.: Microwave vegetation indices for short vegetation covers from satellite passive microwave sensor AMSR-E, Remote Sens. Environ., 112, 4285-4300, 2008.
94. Sternberg, M. and Shoshany, M.: Aboveground biomass allocation and water content relationships in Mediterranean trees and shrubs in two climatological regions in Israel, Plant Ecol., 157, 173-181, 2001. (Pubitemid 34119562)
95. Theil, H.: A rank-invariant method of linear and polynomial regression analysis, Proceedings of Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 53, 386-392, 521-525, 1397-1412, 1950.
96. Tietjen, B., Jeltsch, F., Zehe, E., Classen, N., Groengroeft, A., Schiffers, K., and Oldeland, J.: Effects of climate change on the coupled dynamics of water and vegetation in drylands, Ecohydrology, 3, 226-237, 2010.
97. Tottrup, C. and Rasmussen, M. S.: Mapping long-term changes in savannah crop productivity in Senegal through trend analysis of time series of remote sensing data, Agriculture, Ecosyst. Environ., 103, 545-560, 2004. (Pubitemid 38893888)
98. Tucker, C. J.: Red and photographic infrared linear combinations for monitoring vegetation, Remote Sens. Environ., 8, 127-150, 1979.
99. Tucker, C. J., Vanpraet, C. L., Sharman, M. J., and Van Ittersum, G.: Satellite remote sensing of total herbaceous biomass production in the Senegalese Sahel: 1980-1984, Remote Sens. Environ., 17, 233-249, 1985.
100. Tucker, C. J., Slayback, D. A., Pinzon, J. E., Los, S. O., Myneni, R. B., and Taylor, M. G.: Higher northern latitude normalized difference vegetation index and growing season trends from 1982 to 1999, Int. J. Biometeorol., 45, 184-190, 2001. (Pubitemid 33626751)
101. Tucker, C. J., Pinzon, J. E., Brown, M. E., Slayback, D. A., Pak, E. W., Mahoney, R., Vermote, E. F., and El Saleous, N.: An extended AVHRR 8-km NDVI dataset compatible with MODIS and SPOT vegetation NDVI data, Int. J. Remote Sens., 26, 4485-4498, 2005.
102. Van Auken, O. W.: Shrub invasions of North American semiarid grasslands, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 31, 197-215, 2000. (Pubitemid 32122400)
103. Vegten, J. A.: Thornbush invasion in a savanna ecosystem in eastern Botswana, Plant Ecol., 56, 3-7, 1984. (Pubitemid 15274580)
104. Wang, Q., Adiku, S., Tenhunen, J., and Granier, A.: On the relationship of NDVI with leaf area index in a deciduous forest site, Remote Sens. Environ., 94, 244-255, 2005. (Pubitemid 40020262)
105. Wada, Y., van Beek, L. P. H., van Kempen, C. M., Reckman, J. W. T. M., Vasak, S., and Bierkens, M. F. P.: Global depletion of groundwater resources, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L20402, doi:10.1029/2010GL044571, 2010.
106. Wessels, K. J., Prince, S. D., Malherbe, J., Small, J., Frost, P. E., and VanZyl, D.: Can human-induced land degradation be distinguished from the effects of rainfall variability? A case study in South Africa, J. Arid Environ., 68, 271-297, 2007. (Pubitemid 44573442)
107. Wigneron, J. P., Kerr, Y., Chanzy, A., and Jin, Y. Q.: Inversion of surface parameters from passive microwave measurements over a soybean field, Remote Sens. Environ., 46, 61-72, 1993. (Pubitemid 24399189)
108. Zomer, R. J., Trabucco, A., Bossio, D. A., and Verchot, L. V.: Climate change mitigation: A spatial analysis of global land suitability for clean development mechanism afforestation and reforestation, Agr. Ecosys. Environ., 126, 67-80, 2008.