Cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis: How to lower the risk?

Atherosclerosis

Volumn 231, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 163-172

  Van Breukelen van Der Stoep, D F ^a   Klop, B ^b   Van Zeben, D ^a   Hazes, J M W ^c   Cabezas, M Castro ^b  

^a SINT FRANCISCUS GASTHUIS   (Netherlands)

^b Centre for Diabetes and Vascular Medicine   (Netherlands)

^c ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular risk factor; DMARD; Rheumatoid arthritis; TNF

Indexed keywords

1 ALKYL 2 ACETYLGLYCEROPHOSPHOCHOLINE ESTERASE; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ATORVASTATIN; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CHOLESTEROL; CHYLOMICRON; DISEASE MODIFYING ANTIRHEUMATIC DRUG; ENDOTHELIAL LEUKOCYTE ADHESION MOLECULE 1; ETANERCEPT; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; FISH OIL; GLUCOCORTICOID; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERMEDIATE DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; METHOTREXATE; NAPROXEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PEPTIDE ANTIBODY; PLASMINOGEN; PRAVASTATIN; RHEUMATOID FACTOR; RITUXIMAB; ROSUVASTATIN; SALAZOSULFAPYRIDINE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA INHIBITOR;

ARTERIAL STIFFNESS; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAROTID ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE DURATION; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; FRAMINGHAM RISK SCORE; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; LEUKOCYTE ACTIVATION; LEUKOCYTE MIGRATION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK MANAGEMENT; RISK REDUCTION; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; THROMBOSIS;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTOR; DMARD; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; TNFΑ;

ANTIRHEUMATIC AGENTS; ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; METHOTREXATE; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA;

EID: 84885406394     PISSN: 00219150     EISSN: 18791484     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.09.006     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. van Halm V.P., Peters M.J., Voskuyl A.E., et al. Rheumatoid arthritis versus diabetes as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a cross-sectional study, the CARRE Investigation. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:1395-1400.
2. Maradit-Kremers H., Nicola P.J., Crowson C.S., Ballman K.V., Gabriel S.E. Cardiovascular death in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:722-732.
3. Avina-Zubieta J.A., Choi H.K., Sadatsafavi M., Etminan M., Esdaile J.M., Lacaille D. Risk of cardiovascular mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 59:1690-1697.
4. Graf J., Scherzer R., Grunfeld C., Imboden J. Levels of C-reactive protein associated with high and very high cardiovascular risk are prevalent in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. PloS One 2009, 4:e6242.
5. Solomon D.H., Goodson N.J., Katz J.N., et al. Patterns of cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:1608-1612.
6. del Rincon I.D., Williams K., Stern M.P., Freeman G.L., Escalante A. High incidence of cardiovascular events in a rheumatoid arthritis cohort not explained by traditional cardiac risk factors. Arthritis Rheum 2001, 44:2737-2745.
7. del Rincon I., Freeman G.L., Haas R.W., O'Leary D.H., Escalante A. Relative contribution of cardiovascular risk factors and rheumatoid arthritis clinical manifestations to atherosclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:3413-3423.
8. Naranjo A., Sokka T., Descalzo M.A., et al. Cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the QUEST-RA study. Arthritis Res Ther 2008, 10:R30.
9. van Zonneveld A.J., de Boer H.C., van der Veer E.P., Rabelink T.J. Inflammation, vascular injury and repair in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 69(Suppl.1):i57-60.
10. Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. NEngl J Med 1999, 340:115-126.
11. Montecucco F., Mach F. Common inflammatory mediators orchestrate pathophysiological processes in rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009, 48:11-22.
12. Proctor S.D., Mamo J.C. Intimal retention of cholesterol derived from apolipoprotein B100- and apolipoprotein B48-containing lipoproteins in carotid arteries of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003, 23:1595-1600.
13. Klop B., Proctor S.D., Mamo J.C., Botham K.M., Castro Cabezas M. Understanding postprandial inflammation and its relationship to lifestyle behaviour and metabolic diseases. Int J Vasc Med 2012, 2012:947417.
14. Maziere C., Auclair M., Maziere J.C. Tumor necrosis factor enhances low density lipoprotein oxidative modification by monocytes and endothelial cells. Febs Lett 1994, 338:43-46.
15. Vuilleumier N., Bratt J., Alizadeh R., Jogestrand T., Hafstrom I., Frostegard J. Anti-apoA-1 IgG and oxidized LDL are raised in rheumatoid arthritis (RA): potential associations with cardiovascular disease and RA disease activity. Scand J Rheumatol 2010, 39:447-453.
16. Tsimikas S., Tsironis L.D., Tselepis A.D. New insights into the role of lipoprotein(a)-associated lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007, 27:2094-2099.
17. Lourida E.S., Georgiadis A.N., Papavasiliou E.C., Papathanasiou A.I., Drosos A.A., Tselepis A.D. Patients with early rheumatoid arthritis exhibit elevated autoantibody titers against mildly oxidized low-density lipoprotein and exhibit decreased activity of the lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2. Arthritis Res Ther 2007, 9:R19.
18. Tsimikas S., Willeit J., Knoflach M., et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 activity, ferritin levels, metabolic syndrome, and 10-year cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular mortality: results from the Bruneck study. Eur Heart J 2009, 30:107-115.
19. Missala I., Kassner U., Steinhagen-Thiessen E. Asystematic literature review of the association of lipoprotein(a) and autoimmune diseases and atherosclerosis. Int J Rheumatol 2012, 2012:480784.
20. Dahlen G.H. Lp(a) lipoprotein in cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 1994, 108:111-126.
21. Asanuma Y., Kawai S., Aoshima H., Kaburaki J., Mizushima Y. Serum lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1999, 42:443-447.
22. Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S., Wallberg-Jonsson S., Dahlen G. Lipoprotein (a), lipids, and lipoproteins in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1991, 50:366-368.
23. Lee Y.H., Choi S.J., Ji J.D., Seo H.S., Song G.G. Lipoprotein(a) and lipids in relation to inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2000, 19:324-325.
24. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler, Thromb Vasc Biol 2012, 32:2045-2051.
25. Choy E. Understanding the dynamics: pathways involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2012, 51(Suppl.5):v3-11.
26. Westhorpe C.L., Dufour E.M., Maisa A., Jaworowski A., Crowe S.M., Muller W.A. Endothelial cell activation promotes foam cell formation by monocytes following transendothelial migration in an invitro model. Exp Mol Pathol 2012, 93:220-226.
27. Sattar N., McCarey D.W., Capell H., McInnes I.B. Explaining how "high-grade" systemic inflammation accelerates vascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2003, 108:2957-2963.
28. Koltsova E.K., Garcia Z., Chodaczek G., et al. Dynamic T cell-APC interactions sustain chronic inflammation in atherosclerosis. JClini Invest 2012 Sep 4, 122(9):3114-3126.
29. Hahn B.H., Grossman J., Chen W., McMahon M. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in autoimmune rheumatic diseases: roles of inflammation and dyslipidemia. JAutoimmun 2007, 28:69-75.
30. Tormey V.J., Faul J., Leonard C., Burke C.M., Dilmec A., Poulter L.W. T-cell cytokines may control the balance of functionally distinct macrophage populations. Immunology 1997, 90:463-469.
31. Libby P. Role of inflammation in atherosclerosis associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Med 2008, 121:S21-S31.
32. Liuzzo G., Goronzy J.J., Yang H., et al. Monoclonal T-cell proliferation and plaque instability in acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2000, 101:2883-2888.
33. Martens P.B., Goronzy J.J., Schaid D., Weyand C.M. Expansion of unusual CD4+ T cells in severe rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1997, 40:1106-1114.
34. Weyand C.M., Bryl E., Goronzy J.J. The role of T cells in rheumatoid arthritis. Arch Immunol Ther Exp 2000, 48:429-435.
35. Gerli R., Schillaci G., Giordano A., et al. CD4+CD28- T lymphocytes contribute to early atherosclerotic damage in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Circulation 2004, 109:2744-2748.
36. Hahn B.H., Grossman J., Ansell B.J., Skaggs B.J., McMahon M. Altered lipoprotein metabolism in chronic inflammatory states: proinflammatory high-density lipoprotein and accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2008, 10:213.
37. Shah A.S., Tan L., Lu Long J., Davidson W.S. The proteomic diversity of high density lipoproteins: our emerging understanding of its importance in lipid transport and beyond. JLipid Res 2013 Oct, 54(10):2575-2585.
38. Rye K.A., Barter P.J. Cardioprotective functions of HDL. JLipid Res 2013 Jun 27, [Epub ahead of print].
39. Watanabe J., Charles-Schoeman C., Miao Y., et al. Proteomic profiling following immunoaffinity capture of high-density lipoprotein: association of acute-phase proteins and complement factors with proinflammatory high-density lipoprotein in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2012, 64:1828-1837.
40. Ronda N., Favari E., Borghi M.O., et al. Impaired serum cholesterol efflux capacity in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2013 Apr 5, [Epub ahead of print].
41. Charles-Schoeman C., Lee Y.Y., Grijalva V., et al. Cholesterol efflux by high density lipoproteins is impaired in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012, 71:1157-1162.
42. Deanfield J.E., Halcox J.P., Rabelink T.J. Endothelial function and dysfunction: testing and clinical relevance. Circulation 2007, 115:1285-1295.
43. Sodergren A., Karp K., Boman K., et al. Atherosclerosis in early rheumatoid arthritis: very early endothelial activation and rapid progression of intima media thickness. Arthritis Res Ther 2010, 12:R158.
44. Chatterjee Adhikari M., Guin A., Chakraborty S., Sinhamahapatra P., Ghosh A. Subclinical atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis as evidenced by measurement of carotid intima-media thickness and flow-mediated vasodilatation: an observational study. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2012, 41:669-675.
45. Klocke R., Cockcroft J.R., Taylor G.J., Hall I.R., Blake D.R. Arterial stiffness and central blood pressure, as determined by pulse wave analysis, in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2003, 62:414-418.
46. Kocabay G., Hasdemir H., Yildiz M. Evaluation of pulse wave velocity in systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and Behcet's disease. JCardiol 2012, 59:72-77.
47. Wong M., Toh L., Wilson A., et al. Reduced arterial elasticity in rheumatoid arthritis and the relationship to vascular disease risk factors and inflammation. Arthritis Rheum 2003, 48:81-89.
48. Veselinovic M.V., Zivkovic V.I., Toncev S., et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness and brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilatation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Vasa 2012, 41:343-351.
49. Provan S.A., Angel K., Semb A.G., et al. Early prediction of increased arterial stiffness in patients with chronic inflammation: a 15-year followup study of 108 patients with rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2011, 38:606-612.
50. Hannawi S., Haluska B., Marwick T.H., Thomas R. Atherosclerotic disease is increased in recent-onset rheumatoid arthritis: a critical role for inflammation. Arthritis Res Ther 2007, 9:R116.
51. Ajeganova S., de Faire U., Jogestrand T., Frostegard J., Hafstrom I. Carotid atherosclerosis, disease measures, oxidized low-density lipoproteins, and atheroprotective natural antibodies for cardiovascular disease in early rheumatoid arthritis - an inception Cohort Study. JRheumatol 2012 Jun, 39(6):1146-1154.
52. Van Sijl A.M., Van Den Hurk K., Peters M.J., et al. Different type of carotid arterial wall remodeling in rheumatoid arthritis compared with healthy subjects: a case-control study. JRheumatol 2012, 39:2261-2266.
53. Hellings W.E., Peeters W., Moll F.L., et al. Composition of carotid atherosclerotic plaque is associated with cardiovascular outcome: a prognostic study. Circulation 2010, 121:1941-1950.
54. Roman M.J., Moeller E., Davis A., et al. Preclinical carotid atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 2006, 144:249-256.
55. Karpouzas G.A., Malpeso J., Choi T.Y., Li D., Munoz S., Budoff M.J. Prevalence, extent and composition of coronary plaque in patients with rheumatoid arthritis without symptoms or prior diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Ann Rheum Dis 2013 Jul 25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-203617. [Epub ahead of print].
56. Semb A.G., Rollefstad S., Provan S.A., et al. Carotid plaque characteristics and disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2013, 40:359-368.
57. Budoff M.J., Gul K.M. Expert review on coronary calcium. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2008, 4:315-324.
58. Chung C.P., Oeser A., Raggi P., et al. Increased coronary-artery atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis: relationship to disease duration and cardiovascular risk factors. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:3045-3053.
59. Giles J.T., Szklo M., Post W., et al. Coronary arterial calcification in rheumatoid arthritis: comparison with the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Arthritis Res Ther 2009, 11:R36.
60. Foster W., Lip G.Y., Raza K., Carruthers D., Blann A.D. An observational study of endothelial function in early arthritis. Eur J Clin Investig 2012, 42:510-516.
61. Rho Y.H., Chung C.P., Oeser A., et al. Inflammatory mediators and premature coronary atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2009, 61:1580-1585.
62. Pemberton P.W., Ahmad Y., Bodill H., et al. Biomarkers of oxidant stress, insulin sensitivity and endothelial activation in rheumatoid arthritis: a cross-sectional study of their association with accelerated atherosclerosis. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:83.
63. Stamatelopoulos K.S., Kitas G.D., Papamichael C.M., et al. Atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis versus diabetes: a comparative study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009, 29:1702-1708.
64. Lahiri M., Morgan C., Symmons D.P., Bruce I.N. Modifiable risk factors for RA: prevention, better than cure?. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2012, 51:499-512.
65. Linn-Rasker S.P., van der Helm-van Mil A.H., van Gaalen F.A., et al. Smoking is a risk factor for anti-CCP antibodies only in rheumatoid arthritis patients who carry HLA-DRB1 shared epitope alleles. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:366-371.
66. Sugiyama D., Nishimura K., Tamaki K., et al. Impact of smoking as a risk factor for developing rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:70-81.
67. Klareskog L., Stolt P., Lundberg K., et al. Anew model for an etiology of rheumatoid arthritis: smoking may trigger HLA-DR (shared epitope)-restricted immune reactions to autoantigens modified by citrullination. Arthritis Rheum 2006, 54:38-46.
68. Baka Z., Buzas E., Nagy G. Rheumatoid arthritis and smoking: putting the pieces together. Arthritis Res Ther 2009, 11:238.
69. Wolfe F., Michaud K. The effect of body mass index on mortality and clinical status in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care Res 2012 Oct, 64(10):1471-1479.
70. Ajeganova S., Andersson M.L., Hafstrom I. Obesity is associated with worse disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis as well as with co-morbidities-a long-term follow-up from disease onset. Arthritis Care Res 2013 Jan, 65(1):78-87.
71. Calle E.E., Thun M.J., Petrelli J.M., Rodriguez C., Heath C.W. Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults. NEngl J Med 1999, 341:1097-1105.
72. Hubert H.B., Feinleib M., McNamara P.M., Castelli W.P. Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: a 26-year follow-up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1983, 67:968-977.
73. Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A., Metsios G.S., Panoulas V.F., et al. Associations of obesity with modifiable risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:242-245.
74. Armstrong D.J., McCausland E.M., Quinn A.D., Wright G.D. Obesity and cardiovascular risk factors in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45:782-783. 782; author reply.
75. Kremers H.M., Nicola P.J., Crowson C.S., Ballman K.V., Gabriel S.E. Prognostic importance of low body mass index in relation to cardiovascular mortality in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:3450-3457.
76. Walsmith J., Roubenoff R. Cachexia in rheumatoid arthritis. Int J Cardiol 2002, 85:89-99.
77. Crilly M.A., Wallace A. Physical inactivity and arterial dysfunction in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 2013, 42:27-33.
78. Panoulas V.F., Toms T.E., Metsios G.S., et al. Target organ damage in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: the role of blood pressure and heart rate. Atherosclerosis 2009, 209:255-260.
79. Chung C.P., Giles J.T., Petri M., et al. Prevalence of traditional modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: comparison with control subjects from the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2012, 41:535-544.
80. Rollefstad S., Kvien T.K., Holme I., Eirheim A.S., Pedersen T.R., Semb A.G. Treatment to lipid targets in patients with inflammatory joint diseases in a preventive cardio-rheuma clinic. Ann Rheum Dis 2012 Dec 22, [Epub ahead of print].
81. Paccou J., Brazier M., Mentaverri R., Kamel S., Fardellone P., Massy Z.A. Vascular calcification in rheumatoid arthritis: prevalence, pathophysiological aspects and potential targets. Atherosclerosis 2012, 224:283-290.
82. Park Y.B., Lee S.K., Lee W.K., et al. Lipid profiles in untreated patients with rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 1999, 26:1701-1704.
83. van Halm V.P., Nielen M.M., Nurmohamed M.T., et al. Lipids and inflammation: serial measurements of the lipid profile of blood donors who later developed rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:184-188.
84. Semb A.G., Kvien T.K., Aastveit A.H., et al. Lipids, myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the Apolipoprotein-related Mortality RISk (AMORIS) Study. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:1996-2001.
85. Myasoedova E., Crowson C.S., Kremers H.M., et al. Lipid paradox in rheumatoid arthritis: the impact of serum lipid measures and systemic inflammation on the risk of cardiovascular disease. Ann Rheum Dis 2011, 70:482-487.
86. Myasoedova E., Crowson C.S., Kremers H.M., Fitz-Gibbon P.D., Therneau T.M., Gabriel S.E. Total cholesterol and LDL levels decrease before rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:1310-1314.
87. Knowlton N., Wages J.A., Centola M.B., Alaupovic P. Apolipoprotein-defined lipoprotein abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis patients and their potential impact on cardiovascular disease. Scand J Rheumatol 2012, 41:165-169.
88. Knowlton N., Wages J.A., Centola M.B., et al. Apolipoprotein B-containing lipoprotein subclasses as risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care Res 2012, 64:993-1000.
89. Jackson S.H., Beevers D.G., Myers K. Does long-term low-dose corticosteroid therapy cause hypertension?. Clin Sci (Lond) 1981, 61(Suppl.7):381s-383s.
90. Chan C.C., Reid C.M., Aw T.J., Liew D., Haas S.J., Krum H. Do COX-2 inhibitors raise blood pressure more than nonselective NSAIDs and placebo? an updated meta-analysis. JHypertens 2009, 27:2332-2341.
91. Trelle S., Reichenbach S., Wandel S., et al. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis. BMJ 2011, 342:c7086.
92. Garcia Rodriguez L.A., Tacconelli S., Patrignani P. Role of dose potency in the prediction of risk of myocardial infarction associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the general population. JAm Coll Cardiol 2008, 52:1628-1636.
93. Crofford L.J., Breyer M.D., Strand C.V., et al. Cardiovascular effects of selective COX-2 inhibition: is there a class effect? the International COX-2 Study Group. JRheumatol 2006, 33:1403-1408.
94. Avina-Zubieta J.A., Abrahamowicz M., De Vera M.A., et al. Immediate and past cumulative effects of oral glucocorticoids on the risk of acute myocardial infarction in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2013, 52:68-75.
95. Avina-Zubieta J.A., Abrahamowicz M., Choi H.K., et al. Risk of cerebrovascular disease associated with the use of glucocorticoids in patients with incident rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Ann Rheum Dis 2011, 70:990-995.
96. D'Agostino R.B., Vasan R.S., Pencina M.J., et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2008, 117:743-753.
97. Conroy R.M., Pyorala K., Fitzgerald A.P., et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J 2003, 24:987-1003.
98. Peters M.J., Symmons D.P., McCarey D., et al. EULAR evidence-based recommendations for cardiovascular risk management in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and other forms of inflammatory arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:325-331.
99. Holmqvist M.E., Wedren S., Jacobsson L.T., et al. Rapid increase in myocardial infarction risk following diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis amongst patients diagnosed between 1995 and 2006. JIntern Med 2006, 268:578-585.
100. Finckh A., Courvoisier D.S., Pagano S., et al. Evaluation of cardiovascular risk in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: do cardiovascular biomarkers offer added predictive ability over established clinical risk scores?. Arthritis Care Res 2012, 64:817-825.
101. Wiersma T., Smulders Y.M., Stehouwer C.D., Konings K.T., Lanphen J. Summary of the multidisciplinary guideline on cardiovascular risk management (revision 2011). Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2012, 156:A5104.
102. Catapano A.L., Reiner Z., De Backer G., et al. ESC/EAS guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Atherosclerosis 2011, 217:3-46.
103. Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A., Metsios G.S., Veldhuijzen van Zanten J.J., Nightingale P., Kitas G.D., Koutedakis Y. Individualised aerobic and resistance exercise training improves cardiorespiratory fitness and reduces cardiovascular risk in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012 Nov 15, [Epub ahead of print].
104. Metsios G.S., Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A., Veldhuijzen van Zanten J.J., et al. Individualised exercise improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2013 Jul 31, http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-203291. [Epub ahead of print].
105. Iversen M.D., Brawerman M., Iversen C.N. Recommendations and the state of the evidence for physical activity interventions for adults with rheumatoid arthritis: 2007 to present. Int J Clini Rheumatol 2012, 7:489-503.
106. Estruch R., Ros E., Salas-Salvado J., et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. NEngl J Med 2013, 368:1279-1290.
107. Simopoulos A.P. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. JAm Coll Nutr 2002, 21:495-505.
108. Wardhana, Surachmanto E.S., Datau E.A. The role of omega-3 fatty acids contained in olive oil on chronic inflammation. Acta Med Indones 2011, 43:138-143.
109. Semb A.G., Kvien T.K., Demicco D., et al. Effect of intensive lipid lowering on cardiovascular outcome in patients with and without inflammatory joint disease. Arthritis Rheum 2012 Sep, 64(9):2836-2846.
110. De Vera M.A., Choi H., Abrahamowicz M., Kopec J., Lacaille D. Impact of statin discontinuation on mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based study. Arthritis Care Res 2012, 64:809-816.
111. Abeles A.M., Pillinger M.H. Statins as antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory agents: a future in rheumatologic therapy?. Arthritis Rheum 2006, 54:393-407.
112. Ridker P.M., Danielson E., Fonseca F.A., et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. NEngl J Med 2008, 359:2195-2207.
113. Robinson J.G., Smith B., Maheshwari N., Schrott H. Pleiotropic effects of statins: benefit beyond cholesterol reduction? A meta-regression analysis. JAm Coll Cardiol 2005, 46:1855-1862.
114. Paraskevas K.I. Statin treatment for rheumatoid arthritis: a promising novel indication. Clin Rheumatol 2008, 27:281-287.
115. El-Barbary A.M., Hussein M.S., Rageh E.M., Hamouda H.E., Wagih A.A., Ismail R.G. Effect of atorvastatin on inflammation and modification of vascular risk factors in rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2011, 38:229-235.
116. Vandebriel R.J., De Jong H.J., Gremmer E.R., et al. Statins accelerate the onset of collagen type II-induced arthritis in mice. Arthritis Res Ther 2012, 14:R90.
117. de Jong H.J., Klungel O.H., van Dijk L., et al. Use of statins is associated with an increased risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012, 71:648-654.
118. Day R. Hypertension in the patient with arthritis: have we been underestimating its significance?. JRheumatol 2003, 30:642-645.
119. Singh G., Miller J.D., Huse D.M., Pettitt D., D'Agostino R.B., Russell M.W. Consequences of increased systolic blood pressure in patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2003, 30:714-719.
120. Flammer A.J., Sudano I., Hermann F., et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition improves vascular function in rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2008, 117:2262-2269.
121. Mameli A., Barcellona D., Marongiu F. Rheumatoid arthritis and thrombosis. Clini Exp Rheumatol 2009, 27:846-855.
122. Aksu K., Donmez A., Keser G. Inflammation-induced thrombosis: mechanisms, disease associations and management. Curr Pharm Des 2012, 18:1478-1493.
123. Yokoyama H., Ito N., Soeda S., et al. Influence of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on antiplatelet effect of aspirin. JClin Pharm Ther 2013, 38:12-15.
124. Morris S.J., Wasko M.C., Antohe J.L., et al. Hydroxychloroquine use associated with improvement in lipid profiles in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Care Res 2011, 63:530-534.
125. Wijbrandts C.A., van Leuven S.I., Boom H.D., et al. Sustained changes in lipid profile and macrophage migration inhibitory factor levels after anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:1316-1321.
126. Daien C.I., Duny Y., Barnetche T., Daures J.P., Combe B., Morel J. Effect of TNF inhibitors on lipid profile in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012, 71:862-868.
127. Popa C., van den Hoogen F.H., Radstake T.R., et al. Modulation of lipoprotein plasma concentrations during long-term anti-TNF therapy in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:1503-1507.
128. Navarro-Millan I., Charles-Schoeman C., Yang S., et al. Changes in lipoproteins associated with methotrexate or combination therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis: results from the treatment of early rheumatoid arthritis trial. Arthritis Rheum 2013, 65:1430-1438.
129. Park Y.B., Choi H.K., Kim M.Y., et al. Effects of antirheumatic therapy on serum lipid levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Am J Med 2002, 113:188-193.
130. Choi H.K., Hernan M.A., Seeger J.D., Robins J.M., Wolfe F. Methotrexate and mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Lancet 2002, 359:1173-1177.
131. Angel K., Provan S.A., Fagerhol M.K., Mowinckel P., Kvien T.K., Atar D. Effect of 1-year anti-TNF-alpha therapy on aortic stiffness, carotid atherosclerosis, and calprotectin in inflammatory arthropathies: a controlled study. Am J Hypertens 2012, 25:644-650.
132. van Halm V.P., Nurmohamed M.T., Twisk J.W., Dijkmans B.A., Voskuyl A.E. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs are associated with a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a case control study. Arthritis Res Ther 2006, 8:R151.
133. Georgiadis A.N., Voulgari P.V., Argyropoulou M.I., et al. Early treatment reduces the cardiovascular risk factors in newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis patients. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2008, 38:13-19.
134. Westlake S.L., Colebatch A.N., Baird J., et al. The effect of methotrexate on cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic literature review. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2010, 49:295-307.
135. Greenberg J.D., Kremer J.M., Curtis J.R., et al. Tumour necrosis factor antagonist use and associated risk reduction of cardiovascular events among patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2011, 70:576-582.
136. Avouac J., Allanore Y. Cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis: effects of anti-TNF drugs. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2008, 9:1121-1128.
137. Hurlimann D., Forster A., Noll G., et al. Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2002, 106:2184-2187.
138. Angel K., Provan S.A., Gulseth H.L., Mowinckel P., Kvien T.K., Atar D. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha antagonists improve aortic stiffness in patients with inflammatory arthropathies: a controlled study. Hypertension 2010, 55:333-338.
139. Westlake S.L., Colebatch A.N., Baird J., et al. Tumour necrosis factor antagonists and the risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic literature review. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011, 50:518-531.
140. Gonzalez-Juanatey C., Llorca J., Vazquez-Rodriguez T.R., Diaz-Varela N., Garcia-Quiroga H., Gonzalez-Gay M.A. Short-term improvement of endothelial function in rituximab-treated rheumatoid arthritis patients refractory to tumor necrosis factor alpha blocker therapy. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 59:1821-1824.
141. Mathieu S., Pereira B., Dubost J.J., Lusson J.R., Soubrier M. No significant change in arterial stiffness in RA after 6 months and 1 year of rituximab treatment. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2012, 51:1107-1111.
142. Kerekes G., Soltesz P., Der H., et al. Effects of rituximab treatment on endothelial dysfunction, carotid atherosclerosis, and lipid profile in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 2009, 28:705-710.
143. Benucci M, Saviola G, Manfredi M, Sarzi-Puttini P, Atzeni F. Factors correlated with improvement of endothelial dysfunction during rituximab therapy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Biologics;7:69-75.
144. Caligiuri G., Nicoletti A., Poirier B., Hansson G.K. Protective immunity against atherosclerosis carried by B cells of hypercholesterolemic mice. JClin Invest 2002, 109:745-753.
145. Ait-Oufella H., Herbin O., Bouaziz J.D., et al. Bcell depletion reduces the development of atherosclerosis in mice. JExp Med 2010, 207:1579-1587.
146. Luo S.F., Fang R.Y., Hsieh H.L., et al. Involvement of MAPKs and NF-kappaB in tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 expression in human rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:105-116.
147. Dessein P.H., Joffe B.I., Singh S. Biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction, cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2005, 7:R634-R643.
148. Foster W., Shantsila E., Carruthers D., Lip G.Y., Blann A.D. Circulating endothelial cells and rheumatoid arthritis: relationship with plasma markers of endothelial damage/dysfunction. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009, 48:285-288.
149. Westra J., de Groot L., Plaxton S.L., et al. Angiopoietin-2 is highly correlated with inflammation and disease activity in recent-onset rheumatoid arthritis and could be predictive for cardiovascular disease. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011, 50:665-673.
150. Navarro-Hernandez R.E., Oregon-Romero E., Vazquez-Del Mercado M., Rangel-Villalobos H., Palafox-Sanchez C.A., Munoz-Valle J.F. Expression of ICAM1 and VCAM1 serum levels in rheumatoid arthritis clinical activity. Association with genetic polymorphisms. Dis Makers 2009, 26:119-126.
151. Santos M.J., Carmona-Fernandes D., Canhao H., Canas da Silva J., Fonseca J.E., Gil V. Early vascular alterations in SLE and RA patients-a step towards understanding the associated cardiovascular risk. PloS One 2012, 7:e44668.
152. Tikiz C., Utuk O., Pirildar T., et al. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and statin treatment on inflammatory markers and endothelial functions in patients with longterm rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2005, 32:2095-2101.
153. Price A., Lockhart J.C., Ferrell W.R., Gsell W., McLean S., Sturrock R.D. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor as a novel therapeutic target in rheumatoid arthritis: invivo analyses in rodent models of arthritis and exvivo analyses in human inflammatory synovitis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 2007, 56:441-447.
154. Fischetti F., Carretta R., Borotto G., et al. Fluvastatin treatment inhibits leucocyte adhesion and extravasation in models of complement-mediated acute inflammation. Clin Exp Immunol 2004, 135:186-193.
155. Shirinsky I., Polovnikova O., Kalinovskaya N., Shirinsky V. The effects of fenofibrate on inflammation and cardiovascular markers in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: a pilot study. Rheumatol Int 2012 Dec 23, [Epub ahead of print].
156. Machado R.M., Nakandakare E.R., Quintao E.C., et al. Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids prevent atherosclerosis development in LDLr-KO mice, in spite of displaying a pro-inflammatory profile similar to trans fatty acids. Atherosclerosis 2012, 224:66-74.
157. Calder PC. The role of marine omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids in inflammatory processes, atherosclerosis and plaque stability. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research;56:1073-80.
158. Cleland L.G., Caughey G.E., James M.J., Proudman S.M. Reduction of cardiovascular risk factors with longterm fish oil treatment in early rheumatoid arthritis. JRheumatol 2006, 33:1973-1979.