Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among African-American men: The mediating and moderating roles of masculine self-reliance and John Henryism

Psychology of Men and Masculinity

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 35-46

  Matthews, Derrick D ^a   Hammond, Wizdom Powell ^a   Nuru Jeter, Amani ^b   Cole Lewis, Yasmin ^c   Melvin, Travis ^a  

^a The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

Depression; John Henryism; Masculinity; Racial discrimination; Stress and coping

Indexed keywords

EID: 84883032617     PISSN: 15249220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0028436     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. The American Psychologist, 58, 5-14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.5
2. Addis, M. E. (2008). Gender and depression in men. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 15, 153-168. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00125.x
3. Baker, F. (2001). Diagnosing depression in African Americans. Community mental health journal, 37, 31-38. doi:10.1023/A:1026540321366
4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman & Company.
5. Banks, K. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., & Spencer, M. (2006). An examination of the African American experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress. Community Mental Health Journal, 42, 555-570. doi:10.1007/s10597-006-9052-9
6. Baron, R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173
7. Bennett, G. G., Merritt, M. M., Sollers III, J. J., Edwards, C. L., Whitfield, K. E., Brandon, D. T., & Tucker, R. D. (2004). Stress, coping, and health outcomes among African-Americans: A review of the John Henryism hypothesis. Psychology & Health, 19, 369-383. doi:10.1080/0887044042000193505
8. Blazer, D., Kessler, R., McGonagle, K., & Swartz, M. (1994). The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: The National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 979-986.
9. Blewett, L. A., Johnson, P. J., Lee, B., & Scal, P. B. (2008). When a usual source of care and usual provider matter: Adult prevention and screening services. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23, 1354-1360. doi: 10.1007/s11606-008-0659-0
10. Borrell, L. N., Jacobs, D. R., Williams, D. R., Pletcher, M. J., Houston, T. K., & Kiefe, C. I. (2007). Self-reported racial discrimination and substance use in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Adults Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166, 1068-1079. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm180
11. Borrell, L. N., Kiefe, C. I., Williams, D. R., Diez-Roux, A. V., & Gordon- Larsen, P. (2006). Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skin color in African Americans in the CARDIA study. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 1415-1427. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed. 2006.04.008
12. Brown, T., Williams, D., Jackson, J., Neighbors, H., Torres, M., Sellers, S., & Brown, K. (2000). "Being black and feeling blue": the mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Race and Society, 2, 117-131. doi:10.1016/S1090-9524(00)00010-3
13. Burns, S. M., & Mahalik, J. R. (2006). Physical health, self-reliance, and emotional control as moderators of the relationship between locus of control and mental health among men treated for prostate cancer. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 561-572. doi:10.1007/s10865-006-9076-1
14. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
15. Caughy, M., O'Campo, P., & Muntaner, C. (2004). Experiences of racism among African American parents and the mental health of their preschool-aged children. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 2118-2124. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.12.2118
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008, December 3). People without Health Insurance Coverage, by Race and Ethnicity. Retrieved April 1, 2011, from http://www.cdc.gov/Features/dsHealthInsurance/
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Current depression among adults-United States, 2006 and 2008. MMWR, 59, 1229-1235.
18. Chapman, P. L., & Mullis, R. L. (2000). Racial differences in adolescent coping and self-esteem. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 161, 152-160. doi:10.1080/00221320009596702
19. Chu, J. Y., Porche, M. V., & Tolman, D. L. (2005). The adolescent masculinity ideology in relationships scale. Men and Masculinities, 8, 93-115. doi:10.1177/1097184X03257453
20. Chuick, C., Greenfeld, J., Greenberg, S., Shepard, S., Cochran, S., & Haley, J. (2009). A qualitative investigation of depression in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 302-313. doi:10.1037/a0016672
21. Cochran, S., & Rabinowitz, F. (2000). Men and depression: Clinical and empirical perspectives. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
22. Connolly, P. (1994). All lads together?: Racism, masculinity and multicultural/anti-racist strategies in a primary school. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 4, 191-211. doi:10.1080/0962021940040204
23. Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO Personality Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 5-13. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.5
24. DeVoe, J. E., Fryer, G. E., Phillips, R., & Green, L. (2003). Receipt of preventive care among adults: Insurance status and usual source of care. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 786-791. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.5.786
25. Eisler, R., & Skidmore, J. (1987). Masculine gender role stress. Behavior Modification, 11, 123-136. doi:10.1177/01454455870112001
26. Fernander, A., Durán, R., Saab, P., Llabre, M., & Schneiderman, N. (2003). Assessing the reliability and validity of the John Henry active coping scale in an urban sample of African Americans and white Americans. Ethnicity & Health, 8, 147-161. doi:10.1080/13557850303563
27. Frazier, P., Tix, A., & Barron, K. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115-134. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115
28. Good, G., Dell, D., & Mintz, L. (1989). Male role and gender role conflict: Relations to help seeking in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 295-300. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.36.3.295
29. Good, G., & Wood, P. (1995). Male gender role conflict, depression, and help seeking: Do college men face double jeopardy? Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 70-75. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1995.tb01825.x
30. Hammen, C. (2004). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293-319. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938
31. Hammond, W. P., Matthews, D., Mohottige, D., Agyemang, A., & Corbie- Smith, G. (2010). Masculinity, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays among community-dwelling African-American men. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25, 1300-1308. doi:10.1007/s11606-010-1481-z
32. Hammond, W. P., Matthews, M. D., & Corbie-Smith, G. (2010). Psychosocial factors associated with routine health examination scheduling and receipt among African American men. Journal of the National Medical Association, 102, 276-289.
33. Hammond, W. P., & Mattis, J. (2005). Being a man about it: Constructions of masculinity among African American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 114-126. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.114
34. Hammond, W. P. (2010). Psychosocial correlates of medical mistrust among African American men. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 87-106. doi:10.1007/s10464-009-9280-6
35. Hammond, W. P. (2012). "Taking it like a man!": Masculine role norms as moderators of the racial discrimination-depressive symptoms association among African American men. American Journal of Public Health. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300485
36. Hänninen, V., & Aro, H. (1996). Sex differences in coping and depression among young adults. Social Science & Medicine, 43, 1453-1460. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(96)00045-7
37. Harrell, S. (1997a). Psychometric properties of the Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES). Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago.
38. Harrell, S. (1997b). The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES). Manuscript.
39. Harrell, S. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57. doi:10.1037/h0087722
40. Hart, A., & Bowen, D. (2004). The feasibility of partnering with African- American barbershops to provide prostate cancer education. Ethnicity and Disease, 14, 269-273.
41. Huebner, D., Nemeroff, C., & Davis, M. (2005). Do hostility and neuroticism confound associations between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 723-740. doi:10.1521/jscp.2005.24.5.723
42. Jackson, J., & Knight, K. (2006). Race and self-regulatory health behaviors: The role of the stress response and the HPA axis in physical and mental health disparities. In L. Carstensen & K. Schaie (Eds.), Social structure, aging, and self-regulation in the elderly (pp. 189-207). New York, NY: Springer.
43. James, S., Hartnett, S. A., & Kalsbeek, W. D. (1983). John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 6, 259-278. doi:10.1007/BF01315113
44. James, S., Strogatz, D. S., Wing, S. B., & Ramsey, D. L. (1987). Socioeconomic status, John Henryism, and hypertension in blacks and whites. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126, 664-673.
45. James, S. (1994). John Henryism and the health of African-Americans. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 18, 163-182. doi:10.1007/BF01379448
46. James, S. (1996). The John Henryism scale for active coping. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Handbook of tests and measurements for black populations (Vol. 2, pp. 415-425). Hampton, VA: Cobb & Henry.
47. Joe, S., & Marcus, S. C. (2003). Datapoints: Trends by race and gender in suicide attempts among US adolescents, 1991-2001. Psychiatric Services, 54, 454. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.54.4.454
48. Kessler, R., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K.,.. Wang, P. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 3095-3105. doi: 10.1001/jama.289.23.3095
49. Kessler, R., Chiu, W., Demler, O., & Walters, E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617-627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
50. Kessler, R., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208-230. doi:10.2307/2676349
51. Kessler, R. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191-214. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.191
52. Kiecolt, K. J., Hughes, M., & Keith, V. M. (2009). Can a high sense of control and John Henryism be bad for mental health? Sociological Quarterly, 50, 693-714. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01152.x
53. Klerman, G., & Weissman, M. (1989). Increasing rates of depression. Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 2229-2235. doi: 10.1001/jama.1989.03420150079041
54. Krieger, N., Kosheleva, A., Waterman, P. D., Chen, J. T., & Koenen, K. (2011). Racial discrimination, psychological distress, and self-rated health among US-born and foreign-born Black Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 101, 1704-1713.
55. Krieger, N. (2000). Discrimination and health. In L. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (Vol. 1, pp. 36-75). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
56. Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144-168. doi:10.1177/00957984960222002
57. Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping: Springer Pub Co.
58. Levant, R., Hirsch, L., Celentano, E., & Cozza, T. (1992). The male role: An investigation of contemporary norms. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14, 325-337.
59. Levant, R., & Majors, R. (1997). An investigation into variations in the construction of the male gender role among young African American and European American women and men. Journal of Gender, Culture and Health, 2, 33-43.
60. Levant, R., & Richmond, K. (2007). A review of research on masculinity ideologies using the Male Role Norms Inventory. The Journal of Men's Studies, 15, 130-146. doi:10.3149/jms.1502.130
61. Levant, R. (1996). A new psychology of men. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 259-265. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.27.3.259
62. Long Foley, K., Reed, P., Mutran, E., & DeVellis, R. (2002). Measurement adequacy of the CES-D among a sample of older African-Americans. Psychiatry research, 109, 61-69. doi:10.1016/S0165-1781(01)00360-2
63. Mahalik, J. R., Good, G., & Englar-Carlson, M. (2003). Masculinity scripts, presenting concerns, and help seeking: Implications for practice and training. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 123-131. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.34.2.123
64. Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B. D., Ludlow, L. H., Diemer, M. A., Scott, R. P. J., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4, 3-25. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3
65. McCrae, R., & Costa, P. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52, 509-516. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.5.509
66. McDougald, C. S., Edwards, C. L., Wood, M., Wellington, C., Feliu, M., O'Garo, K.,.. Eaton, S. (2009). Coping as predictor of psychiatric functioning and pain in patients with sickle cell disease (SCD). Journal of African American Studies, 13, 47-62.
67. McEwen, B. S. (2004). Protection and damage from acute and chronic stress: Allostasis and allostatic overload and relevance to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 1-7. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.001
68. Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis: Sage University series on quantitative applications in the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
69. Möller-Leimkühler, A. (2002). Barriers to help-seeking by men: A review of sociocultural and clinical literature with particular reference to depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 1-9. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00379-2
70. Moos, R. H., & Holahan, C. J. (2003). Dispositional and contextual perspectives on coping: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 1387-1403. doi:10.1002/jclp.10229
71. Neighbors, H., Jackson, J., Bowman, P., & Gurin, G. (1983). Stress, coping, and Black mental health. Prevention in Human Services, 2, 5-29. doi:10.1300/J293v02n03_02
72. Neighbors, H., Jackson, J., Broman, C., & Thompson, E. (1996). Racism and the mental health of African Americans: The role of self and system blame. Ethnicity & Disease, 6, 167-175.
73. Neighbors, H., Njai, R., & Jackson, J. (2007). Race, ethnicity, John Henryism, and depressive symptoms: The national survey of American life adult reinterview. Research in Human Development, 4(1-2):71-87. doi:10.1080/15427600701481004
74. Nguyen, H., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M., & Zonderman, A. (2004). Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample. Psychiatry Research, 126, 177-187. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.02.004
75. Noh, S., & Kaspar, V. (2003). Perceived discrimination and depression: Moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 232-238. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.232
76. Oliffe, J., & Phillips, M. (2008). Men, depression and masculinities: A review and recommendations. Journal of Men's Health, 5, 194-202. doi:10.1016/j.jomh.2008.03.016
77. O'Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on men's gender role conflict: New paradigms for empirical research. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 164-206). New York, NY: Basic Books.
78. Ornelas, I. J., Amell, J., Tran, A. N., Royster, M., Armstrong-Brown, J., & Eng, E. (2009). Understanding African American men's perceptions of racism, male gender socialization, and social capital through photovoice. Qualitative Health Research, 19, 552-565. doi:10.1177/1049732309332104
79. Pavalko, E. K., Mossakowski, K. N., & Hamilton, V. J. (2003). Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between work discrimination and women's physical and emotional health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18-33. doi:10.2307/1519813
80. Pierce, C. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In C. Willie, P. Reiker, B. Kramker & B. Brown (Eds.), Mental health: Racism and sexism (pp. 277-293). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
81. Pierre, M. R., Mahalik, J. R., & Woodland, M. H. (2002). The effects of racism, African self-consciousness and psychological functioning on black masculinity: A historical and social adaptation framework. Journal of African American Men, 6, 19-40. doi:10.1007/s12111-001-1006-2
82. Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
83. Reb, J. (2008). Regret aversion and decision process quality: Effects of regret salience on decision process carefulness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105, 169-182. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.006
84. Riolo, S., Nguyen, T., Greden, J., & King, C. (2005). Prevalence of depression by race/ethnicity: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 998-1000. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.047225
85. Riska, E. (2006). Masculinity and men's health: Coronary heart disease in medical and public discourse. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
86. Rochlen, A. B., Paterniti, D. A., Epstein, R. M., Duberstein, P., Willeford, L., & Kravitz, R. L. (2010). Barriers in diagnosing and treating men with depression: A focus group report. American Journal of Men's Health, 4, 167-175. doi:10.1177/1557988309335823
87. Schulz, A., Gravlee, C., Williams, D., Israel, B., Mentz, G., & Rowe, Z. (2006). Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among African American women in Detroit: Results from a longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1265-1270. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.064543
88. Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092. doi:0022-3514.84.5.1079
89. Sharpe, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender-role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 323-330. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.38.3.323
90. Sinharay, S., Stern, H., & Russell, D. (2001). The use of multiple imputation for the analysis of missing data. Psychological Methods, 6, 317-329. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.6.4.317
91. Snowden, L. R. (2001). Barriers to effective mental health services for African Americans. Mental Health Services Research, 3, 181-187. doi: 10.1023/A:1013172913880
92. Sobel, M. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290-312. doi:10.2307/270723
93. Somervell, P., Leaf, P., Weissman, M., Blazer, D., & Bruce, M. (1989). The prevalence of major depression in black and white adults in five United States communities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130, 725-735.
94. Staples, R. (1978). Masculinity and race: The dual dilemma of Black men. Journal of Social Issues, 34, 169-183. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1978.tb02547.x
95. Stoolmiller, M., Kim, H., & Capaldi, D. (2005). The course of depressive symptoms in men from early adolescence to young adulthood: Identifying latent trajectories and early predictors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 331-345. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.3.331
96. Sue, D., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271-286. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.4.271
97. Thompson, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of male role norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 531-543. doi:10.1177/000276486029005003
98. Wade, J. (1996). African American men's gender role conflict: The significance of racial identity. Sex Roles, 34, 17-33. doi:10.1007/BF01544793
99. Watkins, D. C., Green, B. L., Rivers, B. M., & Rowell, K. L. (2006). Depression and black men: Implications for future research. The Journal of Men's Health & Gender, 3, 227-235. doi:10.1016/j.jmhg.2006.02.005
100. Wetzel, J. (1994). Depression: Women-at-risk. Women's Health and Social Work: Feminist Perspectives, 85-108.
101. Williams, D., Gonzalez, H., Neighbors, H., Nesse, R., Abelson, J., Sweetman, J., & Jackson, J. (2007). Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non- Hispanic whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 305-315. doi:10.1001/archpsyc. 64.3.305
102. Williams, D., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20-47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
103. Williams, D., Neighbors, H., & Jackson, J. (2008). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 98, S29-S37. doi:10.2105/AJPH.98.Supplement_ 1.S29
104. Williams, D., Yu, Y., Jackson, J., & Anderson, N. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335-351. doi:10.1177/135910539700200305
105. World Health Organization. (2003). World health report 2003: Shaping the future. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
106. World Health Organization. (2009). Global health risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
107. Zhao, X., Lynch Jr., John, G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 197-206. doi:10.1086/651257