The cloud-aerosol-radiation (CAR) ensemble modeling system

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 13, Issue 16, 2013, Pages 8335-8364

  Liang, X Z ^a,b   Zhang, F ^b  

^a University of Maryland   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; CLIMATE MODELING; CLOUD; CLOUD RADIATIVE FORCING; GENERAL CIRCULATION MODEL; PARAMETERIZATION; RADIATIVE TRANSFER;

EID: 84882755953     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-13-8335-2013     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Abdul-Razzak, H. and Ghan, S. J.: A Parameterization of aerosol activation 3, Sectional representation, J. Geophy. Res., 107, 4026, doi:10.1029/2001JD000483, 2002.
2. Astin, I. and Di Girolamo, L.: The relationship between and the cross-correlation of cloud fraction, Quart. J. Roy. Metero. Soc., 132, 2475-2478, 2006.
3. Barker, H. W., Pincus, R., and Morcrette, J.-J.: The Monte-Carlo Independent Column Approximation: Application within largescale models. Paper presented at GCSS/ARM Workshop on the Representation of Cloud Systems in Large-Scale Models, Kananaskis, Al, Canada, 2002.
4. Barker, H. W., Stephens, G. L., Partain, P. T., Bergman, J. W., Bonnel, B., Campana, K., Clothiaux, E. E., Clough, S., Cusack, S., Delamere, J., Edwards, J., Evans, K. F., Fouquart, Y., Freidenreich, S., Galin, V., Hou, Y., Kato, S., Li, J., Mlawer, E., Morcrette, J.J., O'Hirok, W., R̈ais̈anen, P., Ramaswamy, V., Ritter, B., Rozanov, E., Schlesinger, M., Shibata, K., Sporyshev, P., Sun, Z., Wendisch, M., Wood, N., and Yang, F.: Assessing 1D atmospheric solar radiative transfer models: Interpretation and handling of unresolved clouds, J. Climate, 16, 2676-2699, 2003.
5. Bauer, S. E. and Menon, S.: Aerosol direct, indirect, semidirect, and surface albedo effects from sector contributions based on the IPCC AR5 emissions for preindustrial and present-day conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D01206, doi:10.1029/2011JD016816, 2012.
6. Berger, A., Loutre, M., and Tricot, C.: Insolation and Earth's orbital periods, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10341-10362, 1993.
7. Bergman, J. W. and Rasch, P. J.: Parameterizing vertically-coherent cloud distributions, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2165-2182, 2002.
8. Bony, S., Colman, R., Kattsov, V. M., Allan, R. P., Bretherton, C. S., Dufresne, J. L., Hall, A., Hallegatte, S., Holland, M. M., Ingram, W., Randall, D. A., Soden, B. J., Tselioudis, G., andWebb, M. J.: How well do we understand and evaluate climate change feedback processes?, J. Climate, 19, 3445-3482, 2006.
9. Briegleb, B. P.: Delta-Eddington approximation for solar radiation in the NCAR Community Climate Model, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 7603-7612, 1992.
10. Cahalan, R. F., Ridgway, W., Wiscombe, W. J., Bell, T. L., and Snider, J. B.: The albedo of fractal stratocumulus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2434-2455, 1994.
11. Cairns, B., Lacis, A. A., and Carlson, B. E.: Absorption within inhomogeneous clouds and its parameterization in general circulation models, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 700-714, 2000.
12. Cash, B. A., Schneider, E. K., and Bengtsson, L.: Origin of climate sensitivity differences: role of selected radiative processes in two GCMs, Tellus A, 59, 155-169, 2007.
13. Cess, R. D., Zhang, M. H., Ingram,W. J., Potter, G. L., Alekseev, V., Barker, H. W., Cohen-Solal, E., Colman, R. A., Dazlich, D. A., Del Genio, A. D., Dix, M. R., Dymnikov, V., Esch, M., Fowler, L. D., Fraser, J. R., Galin, V., Gates, W. L., Hack, J. J., Kiehl, J. T., Le Treut, H., Lo, K. K. W., McAvaney, B. J., Meleshko, V. P., Morcrette, J. J., Randall, D. A., Roeckner, E., Royer, J. F., Schlesinger, M. E., Sporyshev, P. V., Timbal, B., Volodin, E. M., Taylor, K. E., Wang, W., and Wetherald, R. T.: Cloud feedback in atmosphere general circulation models: an update, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 12791-12794, 1996.
14. Chou, M.-D. and Suarez, M. J.: A solar radiation parameterization for atmospheric studies, [Last revision on March 2002] Technical Report Series on Global Modeling and Data Assimilation, edited by: Suarez, M. J., NASA/TM-1999-104606, Vol. 15, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, 42 pp., 1999.
15. Chou, M.-D., Suarez, M. J., Ho, C.-H., Yan, M. M.-H., and Lee, K.-T.: Parameterizations for cloud overlapping and shortwave single-scattering properties for use in general circulation and cloud ensemble models, J. Climate, 11, 202-214, 1998.
16. Chou, M.-D., Suarez, M. J., Liang, X.-Z., and Yan, M. M.-H.: A thermal infrared radiation parameterization for atmospheric studies, [Last revision on July 2002] Technical Report Series on Global Modeling and Data Assimilation, edited by: Suarez, M. J., NASA/TM-2001-104606, Vol. 19, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, 56 pp., 2001.
17. Chu, D.A., Kaufman, Y.J., Ichoku, C., Remer, L. A., Tanre, D., and Holben, B. N.: Validation of MODIS aerosol optical depth retrieval over land, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 8007, doi:10.1029/2001GL013205, 2002.
18. Chuang, C. C., Penner, J. E., Prospero, J. M., Grant, K. E., Rau, G. H., and Kawamoto, K.: Cloud susceptibility and the first aerosol indirect forcing: Sensitivity to black carbon and aerosol concentrations, J. Geophy. Res., 107, 4564, doi:10.1029/2000JD000215, 2002.
19. Clough, S. A., Iacono, M. J., and Moncet, J.-L.: Line-by-line calculations of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates: Application to water vapor, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15761-15785, 1992.
20. Clough, S. A., Shephard, M. W., Mlawer, E. J., Delamere, J. S., Iacono, M. J., Cady-Pereira, K., Boukabara, S., and Brown, P. D.: Atmospheric radiative transfer modeling: A summary of the AER codes, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 91, 233-244, 2005.
21. Collins,W. D.: Parameterization of generalized cloud overlap for radiative calculations in general circulation models, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 3224-3242, 2001.
22. Collins, W. D., Rasch, P. J., Boville, B. A., Hack, J. J., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, D. L., Kiehl, J. T., Briegleb, B., Bitz, C., Lin, S.-J., Zhang, M., and Dai, Y.: Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0), NCAR Technical Note, NCAR/TN-464+STR, 226 pp., 2004.
23. Collins,W. D., Ramaswamy, V., Schwarzkopf, M. D., Sun, Y., Portmann, R. W., Fu, Q., Casanova, S. E. B., Dufresne, J.-L., Fillmore, D. W., Forster, P. M. D., Galin, V. Y., Gohar, L. K., Ingram, W. J., Kratz, D. P., Lefebvre, M.-P., Li, J., Marquet, P., Oinas, V., Tsushima, Y., Uchiyama, T., and Zhong,W. Y.: Radiative forcing by well-mixed greenhouse gases: Estimates from climate models in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14317, doi:10.1029/2005JD006713, 2006.
24. Cox, S. J., Stackhouse, P. W. Jr., Gupta, S. K., Mikovitz, J. C., Chiacchio, M., and Zhang, T.: The NASA/GEWEX Surface Radiation Budget Project: Results and analysis. In IRS 2004: Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, paper presented at the International Radiation Symposium, Busan, Korea, edited by: Fischer, H. and Soon, B.-J., Deepak, A., Publishing, 419 pp., 2004.
25. Di Girolamo, L. and Davies, R.: The image navigation cloud mask for the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR),. J. Atmos. Oceanic Tech., 12, 1215-1228, 1995.
26. Del Genio, A. D., Wolf, A. B., and Yao, M.-S.: Evaluation of regional cloud feedbacks using single-column models, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S13, doi:10.1029/2004JD005011, 2005.
27. Dobbie, J., Li, J., and Ch́ylek, P.: Two-and four-stream optical properties for water clouds and solar wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 2067-2079, 1999.
28. Ebert, E. E. and Curry, J. A.: A parameterization of cirrus cloud optical properties for climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 3831-3836, 1992.
29. Edwards, J. M., Havemann, S., Thelen, J. C., and Baran, A. J.: Parameterization for the radiative properties of ice crystals: Comparison with existing schemes and impact in a GCM, Atmos. Res., 83, 19-35, 2007.
30. Ellingson, R. G., Ellis, J., and Fels, S.: The intercomparison of radiation codes used in climate models: Long wave results, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 8929-8953, 1991.
31. Ferrier, B. S., Lin, Y., Black, T., Rogers, E., and DiMego, G.: Implementation of a new grid-scale cloud and precipitation scheme in the NCEP ETA model, Preprints at 15th Conference on Numerical Weather Prediction, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 280-283, 2002.
32. Flanner, M., Zender, C., Randerson, J., and Rasch, P.: Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11202, doi:10.1029/2006 JD008003, 2007.
33. Fouquart, Y., Bonnel, B., and Ramaswamy, V.: Intercomparing shortwave radiation codes for climate studies, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 8955-8968, 1991.
34. Freidenreich, S. M. and Ramaswamy, V.: A new multiple-band solar radiative parameterization for general circulation models, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 31389-31409, 1999.
35. Fu, Q. and Liou, K.N.: On the correlated k-distribution method for radiative transfer in nonhomogeneous atmospheres, J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 2139-2156, 1992.
36. Fu, Q., Liou, K. N., Cribb, M. C., Charlock, T. P., and Grossman, A.: Multiple scattering parameterization in thermal infrared radiative transfer, J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2799-2812, 1997.
37. Fu, Q., Yang, P., and Sun, W. B.: An accurate parameterization of the infrared radiative properties of cirrus clouds for climate models, J. Climate, 11, 2223-2237, 1998.
38. Geleyn, J.-F. and Hollingsworth, A.: An economical analytical method for the computation of the interaction between scattering and line absorption of radiation, J. Atmos. Phys., 52, 1-16, 1979.
39. Gu, Y., Liou, K. N., Ou, S. C., and Fovell, R.: Cirrus cloud simulations using WRF with improved radiation parameterization and increased vertical resolution, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D06119, doi:10.1029/2010JD014574, 2011.
40. Hess, M., Koepke, P., and Schult, I.: Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds: The Software Package OPAC, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 831-844, 1998.
41. Hogan, R. J. and Illingworth, A.J.: Deriving cloud overlap statistics from radar, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 2903-2909, 2000.
42. Hu, Y. X. and Stamnes, K.: An accurate parameterization of the radiative properties of water clouds suitable for use in climate models, J. Climate, 6, 728-742, 1993.
43. Iacono, M. J., Delamere, J. S., Mlawer, E. J., Shephard, M. W., Clough, S. A., and Collins, W. D.: Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: Calculations with the AER radiative transfer models, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D13103, doi:10.29/2008JD009944, 2008.
44. Ichikawa, H., Masunaga, H., Tsushima, Y., and Kanzawa, H.: Reproducibility by climate models of cloud radiative forcing associated with tropical convection, J. Climate, 25, 1247-1262, 2012.
45. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Solomon S., Qin D., Manning, M., Marquis, M., Averyt, K., Tignor, M.M.B., Miller, H.L. Jr., and Chen, Z., Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2007.
46. Kahn, R. A., Gaitley, B. J., Martonchik, J. V., Diner, D. J., Crean, K. A., and Holben, B.: Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) global aerosol optical depth validation based on 2 years of coincident Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) observations, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S04, doi:10.29/2004JD004706, 2005.
47. Kahn, R. A., Garay, M. J., Nelson, D. L., Yau, K. K., Bull, M. A., Gaitley, B. J., Martonchik, J. V., and Levy, R. C.: Satellite-derived aerosol optical depth over dark water from MISR and MODIS: Comparisons with AERONET and implications for climatological studies, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D18205, doi:10.29/2006JD008175, 2007.
48. Kay, J., Hillman, B., Klein, S., Zhang, Y., Medeiros, B., Pincus, R., Gettelman, A., Eaton, B., Boyle, J., Marchand, R., and Ackerman, T.: Exposing global cloud biases in the Community Atmosphere Model (CAM) using satellite observations and their corresponding instrument simulators, J. Climate, 25, 5190-5207, 2012.
49. Kiehl, J. T., Hack, J. J., Bonan, G. B., Boville, B. A., Briegleb, B. P., Williamson, D. L., and Rasch, P. J.: Description of the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM3). NCAR Tech. Note, NCAR/TN-420+STR, 143 pp., 1996.
50. Kiehl, J. T., Hack, J. J., Bonan, G. B., Boville, B. A., Williamson, D. L., and Rasch, P. J.: The National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model: CCM3, J. Climate, 11, 1131-1149, 1998.
51. Li, J.: Accounting for unresolved clouds in a 1-D infrared radiative transfer model, Part I: Solution for radiative transfer, including cloud scattering and overlap, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 3302-3320, 2002.
52. Li, J. and Barker, H. W.: A radiation algorithm with correlated-k distribution, Part I: local thermal equilibrium, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 286-309, 2005.
53. Li, J. and Min, Q. L.: Note and correspondence: parameterization of the optical properties of sulfate aerosols in the infrared, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 3130-3140, 2002.
54. Li, J., Wong, J. G. D., Dobbie, J. S., and Chylek, P.: Parameterization of the optical properties of sulfate aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 193-209, 2001.
55. Li, J., Mlawer, E., and Chylek, P.: Parameterization of cloud optical properties for semidirect radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D23212, doi:10.1029/2011JD016611, 2011.
56. Li, J.-L. F., Waliser, D., Woods, C., Teixeira, J., Bacmeister, J., Chern, J., Shen, B.-W., Tompkins, A., Tao, W.-K., and K̈ohler, M.: Comparisons of satellites liquid water estimates to ECMWF and GMAO analyses, 20th century IPCC AR4 climate simulations, and GCM simulations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L19710, doi:10.1029/2008GL035427, 2008.
57. Li, J.-L. F., Waliser, D. E., and Jiang, J. H.: Correction to "Comparisons of satellites liquid water estimates to ECMWF and GMAO analyses, 20th century IPCC AR4 climate simulations, and GCM simulations", Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L24807, doi:10.1029/2011GL049956, 2011a.
58. Li, J.-L. F., Waliser, D. E., Chen, W.-T., Guan, B., Kubar, T., Stephen, G., Ma, H.-Y., Deng, M., Donner, L., Seman, C., and Horowitz, L.: An observationally-based evaluation of cloud ice water in CMIP3 and CMIP5 GCMs and contemporary reanalyses using contemporary satellite data, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D16105, doi:10.1029/2012JD017640, 2012.
59. Li, J.-L. F., Waliser, D. E., Stephens, G., Lee, S., L'Ecuyer, T., Kato, S., Loeb, N., and Ma, H.-Y.: Characterizing and understanding radiation budget biases in CMIP3/CMIP5 GCMs, contemporary GCM, and reanalysis, J. Geophys. Res., 118, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50378, 2013.
60. Liang, X.-Z. and Wang, W.-C.: Cloud overlap effects on general circulation model climate simulations, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 11039-11047, 1997.
61. Liang, X.-Z. and Wu, X.: Evaluation of a GCM subgrid cloud-radiation interaction parameterization using cloudresolving model simulations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06801, doi:10.1029/2004GL022301, 2005.
62. Liang, X.-Z.,Wang,W.-C., and Boyle, J. S.: Atmospheric ozone climatology for use in general circulation models, PCMDI Report No. 43, UCRL-MI-125650, 25 pp., 1997.
63. Liang, X.-Z., Xu, M., Gao, W., Kunkel, K. E., Slusser, J., Dai, Y., Min, Q., Houser, P. R., Rodell, M., Schaaf, C. B., and Gao, F.: Development of land surface albedo parameterization bases on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D11107, doi:10.1029/2004JD005579, 2005.
64. Liang, X.-Z., Xu, M., Choi, H.I, Kunkel, K. E., Rontu, L., Geleyn, J.-F., M̈uller, M. D., Joseph, E., and, Wang, J. X. L.: Development of the regional Climate-Weather Research and Forecasting model (CWRF): Treatment of subgrid topography effects, Paper presented at the 7th Annual WRF User'sWorkshop, Boulder, CO, 5 pp., 2006.
65. Liang, X.-Z., Xu, M., Yuan, X., Ling, T., Choi, H.I., Zhang, F., Chen, L., Liu, S., Su, S., Qiao, F., He, Y.,Wang, J. X. L., Kunkel, K. E., Gao, W., Joseph, E., Morris, V., Yu, T.-W., Dudhia, J., and Michalakes, J.: Regional Climate-Weather Research and Forecasting Model (CWRF), Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 93, 1363-1387, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00180.1, 2012.
66. Lindner, T. H. and Li, J.: Parameterization of the optical properties for water clouds in the infrared, J. climate, 13, 1797-1805, 2000.
67. Liou, K.N., Gu, Y., Yue, Q., and McFarguhar, G.: On the correlation between ice water content and ice crystal size and its application to radiative transfer and general circulation models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L13805, doi:10.1029/2008GL033918, 2008.
68. Lohmann, U. and Feichter, J.: Global indirect aerosol effects: a review, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715-737, doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005, 2005.
69. Manabe, S. and Strickler, R. F.: Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a convective adjustment, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 21, 361-365, 1964.
70. Martin, G. M., Johnson, D. W., and Spice, A.: The measurement and parameterization of effective radius of droplets in warm stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1823-1842, 1994.
71. Meinshausen, M., Smith, S. J., Calvin, K., Daniel, J. S., Kainuma, M. L. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Matsumoto, K., Montzka, S., Raper, S., Riahi, K., Thomson, A., Velders, G. J. M., and van Vuuren, D. P.: The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extension from 1765 to 2500, Clim. Change, 109, 213-241, 2011.
72. Mesinger, F., DiMego, G., Kalnay, E., Mitchell, K., Shafran, P., Ebisuzaki,W., Jovic, D.,Woollen, J., Rogers, E., Berbery, E., Ek, M., Fan, Y., Grumbine, R., Higgins,W., Li, H., Lin, Y., Manikin, G., Parrish, D., and Shi,W.: North American regional reanalysis, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 87, 343-360, 2006.
73. Min, Q. L., and Harrison, L. C.: Cloud properties derived from surface MFRSR measurements and comparison with GOES results at the ARM SGP site, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 1641-1644, 1996.
74. Ming, Y., Ramaswamy, V., Donner, L. J., and Phillips, V. T. J.: A new parameterization of cloud droplet activation applicable to general circulation models, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1348-1356, 2006.
75. Morcrette, J. J., Barker, H. W., Cole, J. N. S., Iacono, M. J., and Pincus, R.: Impact of a new radiation package, McRad, in the ECMWF integrated forecasting system, Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 4773-4798, 2008.
76. Moss, R. H., Edmonds, J. A., Hibbard, K. A.,Manning, M. R., Rose, S. K., van Vuuren, D. P., Carter, T. R., Emori, S., Kainuma, M., Kram, T., Meehl, G. A., Mitchell, J. F. B., Nakicenovic, N., Riahi, K., Smith, S. J., Stouffer, R. J., Thomson, A. M., Weyant, J. P., and Wilbanks, T. J.: The next generation of scenarios for climate change research and assessment, Nature, 463, 747-756, doi:10.1038/nature08823, 2010.
77. M̈uller, M. D. and Scherer, D.: A grid-and subgrid-scale radiation parameterization of topographic effects for mesoscale weather forecast models. Monthly Weather Review, 133, 1431-1442, doi:10.1175/MWR2927.1, 2005.
78. Murphy, J. M., Sexton, D. M. H., Barnett, D. N., Jones, G. S.,Webb, M. J., Collins, M., and Stainforth, D. A.: Quantification of modelling uncertainties in a large ensemble of climate change simulations, Nature, 430, 768-772, 2004.
79. Nakicenovic, N., Alcamo, J., Davis, G., de Vries, B., Fenhann, J., Gaffin, S., Gregory, K., Gr̈ubler, A., Jung, T. Y., Kram, T., La Rovere, E. L., Michaelis, L., Mori, S., Morita, T., Pepper, W., Pitcher, H., Price, L., Riahi, K., Roehrl, A., Rogner, H.-H., Sankovski, A., Schlesinger, M., Shukla, P., Smith, S., Swart, R., Rooijen, van S., Victor, N., and Dadi, Z.: IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, UK, 570 pp., 2000.
80. Naud, C. M., Del Genio, A. D., Mace, G. G., Benson, S., Clothiaux, E. E., and Kollias, P.: Impact of dynamics and atmospheric state on cloud vertical overlap, J. Climate, 21, 1758-1770, 2008.
81. Neale, R. B., Chen, C.-C., Gettelman, A., Lauritzen, P. H., Park, S., Williamson, D. L., Conley, A. J., Garcia, R., Kinnison, D., Lamarque, J.-F., Marsh, D., M., Smith, A. K., Tilmes, S., Vitt, F., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins, W. D., Iacono, M. J., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Liu, X., Rasch, P. J., and Taylor, M. A.: Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 5.0), NCAR Technical NoteNCAR/TN-486+STR, June, 268 pp., 2010.
82. Nenes, A. and Seinfeld, J. H.: Parameterization of cloud droplet formation in global climate models, J. Geophy. Res., 108, 4415, doi:10.1029/2002JD002911, 2003.
83. Oreopoulos, L., Mlawer, E., Delamere, J., Shippert, T., Cole, J., Fomin, B., Iacono, M., Jin, Z. H., Li, J. N., Manners, J., R̈ais̈anen, P., Rose, F., Zhang, Y. C.,Wilson, M. J., and Rossow,W. B.: The continual intercomparison of radiation codes: results from phase I, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D06118, doi:10.1029/2011JD016821, 2012.
84. Pincus, R., Barker, H. W., and Morcrette, J.-J.: A fast, flexible, approximate technique for computing radiative transfer in inhomogeneous clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 108D, 4376, doi:10.1029/2002JD003322, 2003.
85. Pincus, R., Hannay, C., and Evans, K. F.: The accuracy of determining three-dimensional radiative transfer effects in cumulus clouds using ground-based profiling instruments, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2284-2293, 2005.
86. Pincus, R., Batstone, C. P., Hofmann, R. J. P., Taylor, K. E., and Glecker, P. J.: Evaluating the present-day simulation of clouds, precipitation, and radiation in climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14209, doi:10.1029/2007JD009334, 2008.
87. R̈ais̈anen, P., Barker, H. W., Khairoutdinov, M. F., Li, J., and Randall, D. A.: Stochastic generation of subgrid-scale cloudy columns for large-scale models, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 130, 2047-2067, 2004.
88. Remer, L. A., Tanŕe, D., Kaufman, Y.J., Ichoku, C., Mattoo, S., Levy, R., Chu, D. A., Holben, B., dubovik, O., Smirnov, A., Martins, J. V., Li, R. R., and Ahmad, Z.: Validation of MODIS aerosol retrieval over ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 8008, doi:10.1029/2001GL013204, 2002.
89. Rossow, W. B., Walker, A. W., Beuschel, D. E., and Roiter, M. D.: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) Documentation of New Cloud Datasets. WMO/TD-No. 737, World Meteorological Organization, 115 pp., 1996.
90. Rossow, W. B., Delo, C., and Cairns, B.: Implications of the observed mesoscale variations of clouds for Earth's radiation budget, J. Climate, 15, 557-585, 2002.
91. Rossow,W. B., Zhang, Y. C., andWang, J. H.: A statistical model of cloud vertical structure based on reconciling cloud layer amounts inferred from satellites and radiosonde humidity profiles, J. Climate, 18, 3587-3605, 2005.
92. Sanderson, B. M.: A multimodel study of parametric uncertainty in predictions of climate response to rising greenhouse gas concentrations, J. Climate, 24, 1362-1377, 2011.
93. Savij̈arvi, H., Arola, A., and R̈ais̈anen, P.: Short-wave optical properties of precipitating water clouds, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 123, 883-899, 1997.
94. Schwarzkopf, M. D. and Ramaswamy, V.: Radiative effects of CH4, N2O, halocarbons and the foreign-broadened H2O continuum: A GCM experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 9467-9488, 1999.
95. Seemann, S.W., Borbas, E. E., Knuteson, R. O., Stephenson, G. R., and Huang, H.-L.: Development of a global infrared land surface emissivity database for application to clear sky sounding retrievals from multispectral satellite radiance measurements, J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 47, 108-123, 2008.
96. Senkova, A. V., Rontu, L., and Savij̈arvi, H.: Parametrization of orographic effects on surface radiation in HIRLAM, Tellus, 59, 279-291, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2007.00235.x, 2007.
97. Slingo, A. S.: A GCM parameterization for the shortwave radiative properties of water clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1419-1427, 1989.
98. Slingo, J. M.: The development and verifcation of a cloud prediction scheme for the ECMWF model, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 113, 899-927, 1987.
99. Stackhouse, P. W. Jr., Cox, S. J., Gupta, S. K., Chiacchio, M., and Mikovitz, J. C.: The WCRP/GEWEX surface radiation budget project release 2: An assessment of surface fluxes at 1 degree resolution. Paper presented at International Radiation Symposium, St.-Petersburg, Russia, July 24-29, IRS 2000: Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, edited by: W. L. Smith and Y. Timofeyev, p. 147, A. Deepak Publishing, 2001.
100. Stainforth, D. A., Aina, T., Christensen, C., Collins, M., Faull, N., Frame, D. J., Kettleborough, J. A., Knight, S., Martin, A., Murphy, J. M., Piani, C., Sexton, D., Smith, L. A., Spicer, R. A., Thorpe, A. J., and Allen, M. R.: Uncertainty in predictions of the climate response to rising levels of greenhouse gases, Nature, 433, 403-406, 2005.
101. Stott, P. A. and Kettleborough, J. A.: Origins and estimates of uncertainty in predictions of twenty-first century temperature rise, Nature, 416, 723-726, 2002.
102. Sun, Z.: Development of the Sun-Edwards-Slingo Radiation Scheme (SES2). In CAWCR Technical Report No. 009, Centre for AustralianWeather and Climate Research, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 94 pp., 2008.
103. Sun, Z. A. and Rikus, L.: Parametrization of effective radius of cirrus clouds and its verification against observations, Q. J. Royal. Meteor. Soc., 125, 3037-3056, 1999.
104. Taylor, K. E., Stouffer, R. J., and Meehl, G. A.: A Summary of the CMIP5 Experiment Design, World Climate Research Program, 32 pp., 2009.
105. Tebaldi, C. and Knutti, R.: The use of the multi-model ensemble in probabilistic climate projections, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A., 3, 2053-2075, 2007.
106. Tiedtke, M.: Representation of clouds in large-scale models, Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 3040-3061, 1993.
107. Tompkins, A. M.: A prognostic parameterization for the subgridscale variability of water vapor and clouds in large-scale models and its use to diagnose cloud cover, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1917-1942, 2002.
108. Uppala, S.M., Dee, D.P., Kobayashi, S., Berrisford, P., and Simmons, A.J.: Towards a climate data assimilation system: Status update of ERA-Interim, ECMWF Newsletter, 115, 12-18, 2008.
109. Waliser, D. E., Li, J.-L. F., Woods, C. P., Austin, R. T., Bacmeister, J., Chern, J., Del Genio, A., Jiang, J. H., Kuang, Z., Meng, H., Minnis, P., Platnick, S., Rossow, W. B., Stephens, G. L., Sun-Mack, S., Tao, W.-K., Tompkins, A. M., Vane, D. G., Walker, C., andWu, D.: Cloud ice: A climate model challenge with signs and expectations of progress, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00A21, doi:10.1029/2008JD010015, 2009.
110. Watanabe, M., Emori, S., Satoh, M., and Miura, H.: A PDF based hybrid prognostic cloud scheme for general circulation models, Clim. Dyn., 33, 795-816, 2009.
111. Webb, M. J., Senior, C. A., Sexton, D. M. H., Ingram, W. J., Williams, K. D., Ringer, M. A., McAvaney, B. J., Colman, R., Soden, B. J., Gudgel, R., Knutson, T., Emori, S., Ogura, T., Tsushima, Y., Andronova, N., Li, B., Musat, I., Bony, S., and Taylor, K. E.: On the contribution of local feedback mechanisms to the range of climate sensitivity in two GCM ensembles, Clim. Dynam., 27, 17-38, 2006.
112. Wielicki, B. A., Barkstrom, B., Harrison, E. F., Lee, R., Smith, G., and Cooper, J.: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES): An Earth observing system experiment, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 853-868, 1996.
113. Wild, M.: Solar radiation budgets in atmospheric model intercomparisons from a surface perspective, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07704, doi:10.1029/2005GL022421, 2005.
114. Wild, M., Long, C. N., and Ohmura, A.: Evaluation of clear-sky solar fluxes in GCMs participating in AMIP and IPCC-AR4 from a surface perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D01104, doi:10.1029/2005JD006118, 2006.
115. Wu, X. and Liang, X.-Z.: Radiative effects of cloud horizontal inhomogeneity and vertical overlap identified from a month-long cloud-resolving model simulation, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4105-4112, 2005.
116. Wu, X., Liang, X.-Z., and Park, S.: Cloud-resolving model simulations over the ARM SGP. Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 2841-2853, 2007.
117. Xu, K.-M. and Randall, D. A.: A semiempirical cloudiness parameterization for use in climate models, J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 3084-3102, 1996.
118. Yu, H., Kaufman, Y. J., Chin, M., Feingold, G., Remer, L. A., Anderson, T. L., Balkanski, Y., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Christopher, S., DeCola, P., Kahn, R., Koch, D., Loeb, N., Reddy, M. S., Schulz, M., Takemura, T., and Zhou, M.: A review of measurement-based assessments of the aerosol direct radiative effect and forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 613-666, doi:10.5194/acp-6-613-2006, 2006.
119. Zhang, F., Liang, X.-Z., Li, J., and Zeng, Q.-C.: Dominant roles of subgrid-scale cloud structures in model diversity of cloud radiative effects, J. Geophys. Res., 118, 7733-7749, 2013.
120. Zhang, M. H., Lin, W. Y., Klein, S. A., Bacmeister, J. T., Bony, S., Cederwall, R. T., Del Genio, A. D., Hack, J.J., Loeb, N. G., Lohmann, U., Minnis, P., Musat, I., Pincus, R., Stier, P., Suarez, M. J., Webb, M. J., Wu, J. B., Xie, S. C., Yao, M.-S., and Zhang, J. H.: Comparing clouds and their seasonal variations in 10 atmospheric general circulation models with satellite measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S02, doi:10.1029/2004JD005021, 2005.
121. Zhang, Y.-C., Rossow, W. B., Lacis, A. A., Oinas, V., and Mishchenko, M. I.: Calculation of radiative fluxes from the surface to top-ofatmosphere based on ISCCP and other global datasets: Refinements of the radiative transfer model and the input data, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D19105, doi:10.1029/2003JD004457, 2004.