Why has research in face recognition progressed so slowly? The importance of variability

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology

Volumn 66, Issue 8, 2013, Pages 1467-1485

  Mike Burton, A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Face recognition; Identity; Variability

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DISCRIMINATION LEARNING; FACE; HUMAN; PATTERN RECOGNITION; PHOTOSTIMULATION; PHYSIOLOGY; RECOGNITION; RESEARCH;

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING; FACE; HUMANS; PATTERN RECOGNITION, VISUAL; PHOTIC STIMULATION; RECOGNITION (PSYCHOLOGY); RESEARCH;

EID: 84882265970     PISSN: 17470218     EISSN: 17470226     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2013.800125     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Bartlett, M. S., Movellan, J. R. and Sejnowski, T. J. 2002. Face recognition by independent component analysis. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 13 (6): 1450 - 1464. doi:10.1109/TNN.2002.804287 (doi:10.1109/TNN.2002.804287)
2. Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E. and McCarthy, G. 1996. Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8 (6): 551 - 565. doi:10.1126/science.1598577 (doi:10.1162/jocn.1996.8.6.551)
3. Benton, A. L., Sivan, A. B., Hamsher, K. deS., Varney, N. R. and Spreen, O. 1994. Contributions to neuropsychological assessment, 2, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
4. Bindemann, M., Burton, A. M., Leuthold, H. and Schweinberger, S. R. 2008. Brain potential correlates of face recognition: Geometric distortions and the N250r brain response to stimulus repetitions. Psychophysiology, 45 (4): 535 - 544. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00663.x)
5. Bruce, V. 1986. Influences of familiarity on the processing of faces. Perception, 15 (4): 387 - 397. (doi:10.1068/p150387)
6. Bruce, V. 1994. Stability from variation: The case of face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 47 (1): 5 - 28. (doi:10.1080/14640749408401141)
7. Bruce, V., Ellis, H. and Gibling, F. 1987. Parallel processing of the sex and familiarity of faces. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41 (4): 510 - 520. (doi:10.1037/h0084165)
8. Bruce, V., Henderson, Z., Greenwood, K., Hancock, P. J. B., Burton, A. M. and Miller, P. 1999. Verification of face identities from images captured on video. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5 (4): 339 - 360. (doi:10.1037/1076-898X.5.4.339)
9. Bruce, V., Henderson, Z., Newman, C. and Burton, A. M. 2001. Matching identities of familiar and unfamiliar faces caught on CCTV images. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7 (3): 207 - 218. (doi:10.1037/1076-898X.7.3.207)
10. Bruce, V. and Young, A. W. 1986. Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77 (3): 305 - 327. (doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.x)
11. Burton, A. M. and Jenkins, R. 2011. " Unfamiliar face perception ". In Oxford handbook of face perception, Edited by: Calder, A. J., Rhodes, G., Johnson, M. and Haxby, J. 287 - 306. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. Burton, A. M., Jenkins, R., Hancock, P. J. B. and White, D. 2005. Robust representations for face recognition: The power of averages. Cognitive Psychology, 51 (3): 256 - 284. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.06.003 (doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.06.003)
13. Burton, A. M., Jenkins, R. and Schweinberger, S. R. 2011. Mental representations of familiar faces. British Journal of Psychology, 102 (4): 943 - 958. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02039.x (doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02039.x)
14. Burton, A. M., White, D. and McNeill, A. 2010. The Glasgow Face Matching Test. Behavior Research Methods, 42 (1): 286 - 291. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.1.286 (doi:10.3758/BRM.42.1.286)
15. Burton, A. M., Wilson, S., Cowan, M. and Bruce, V. 1999. Face recognition in poor-quality video: Evidence from security surveillance. Psychological Science, 10 (3): 243 - 248. (doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00144)
16. Clutterbuck, R. and Johnston, R. A. 2002. Exploring levels of face familiarity by using an indirect face-matching measure. Perception, 31 (8): 985 - 994. doi:10.1068/p3335 (doi:10.1068/p3335)
17. Clutterbuck, R. and Johnston, R. A. 2004. Matching as an index of face familiarity. Visual Cognition, 11 (7): 857 - 869. (doi:10.1080/13506280444000021)
18. Clutterbuck, R. and Johnston, R. A. 2005. Demonstrating how unfamiliar faces become familiar using a face matching task. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17 (1): 97 - 116. (doi:10.1080/09541440340000439)
19. Davies-Thompson, J., Gouws, A. and Andrews, T. J. 2009. An image-dependent representation of familiar and unfamiliar faces in the human ventral stream. Neuropsychologia, 47 (6): 1627 - 1635. (doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.01.017)
20. Davis, J. P. and Valentine, T. 2009. CCTV on trial: Matching video images with the defendant in the dock. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23 (4): 482 - 505. doi:10.1002/acp.1490 (doi:10.1002/acp.1490)
21. Deffenbacher, K. A., Johanson, J., Vetter, T. and O'Toole, A. J. 2000. The face typicality-recognizability relationship: Encoding or retrieval locus?. Memory & Cognition, 28 (7): 1173 - 1182. (doi:10.3758/BF03211818)
22. DeGutis, J., Wilmer, J., Mercado, R. J. and Cohan, S. 2013. Using regression to measure holistic face processing reveals a strong link with face recognition ability. Cognition, 126 (1): 87 - 100. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.09.004 (doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.09.004)
23. Duchaine, B. and Nakayama, K. 2006. The Cambridge Face Memory Test: Results for neurologically intact individuals and an investigation of its validity using inverted face stimuli and prosopagnosic participants. Neuropsychologia, 44 (4): 576 - 585. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.001 (doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.001)
24. Eimer, M. 2011. " The face-sensitive N170 component of the event-related brain potential ". In Oxford handbook of face perception, Edited by: Calder, A. J., Rhodes, G., Johnson, M. and Haxby, J. 287 - 306. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
25. Ellis, A. W., Young, A. W. and Flude, B. M. 1990. Repetition priming and face processing: Priming occurs within the system that responds to the identity of a face. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 42 (3): 495 - 512. doi:10.1080/14640749008401234 (doi:10.1080/14640749008401234)
26. Ellis, H. D., Shepherd, J. W. and Davies, G. M. 1979. Identification of familiar and unfamiliar faces from internal and external features: Some implications for theories of face recognition. Perception, 8 (4): 431 - 439. (doi:10.1068/p080431)
27. Gauthier, I. and Bukach, C. 2007. Should we reject the expertise hypothesis?. Cognition, 103 (2): 322 - 330. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.003 (doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.003)
28. Goshen-Gottstein, Y. and Ganel, T. 2000. Repetition priming for familiar and unfamiliar faces in a sex-judgment task: Evidence for a common route for the processing of sex and identity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26 (5): 1198 (doi:10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1198)
29. Hancock, P. J. B., Bruce, V. and Burton, A. M. 2000. Recognition of unfamiliar faces. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (9): 330 - 337. (doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01519-9)
30. Harper, B. and Latto, R. 2001. Cyclopean vision, size estimation, and presence in orthostereoscopic images. Presence, 10 (3): 312 - 330. (doi:10.1162/105474601300343630)
31. Haxby, J., Hoffman, E. and Gobbini, M. 2000. The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (6): 223 - 232. (doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01482-0)
32. Hill, H. and Bruce, V. 1996. The effects of lighting on the perception of facial surfaces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22 (4): 986 - 1004. (doi:10.1037/0096-1523.22.4.986)
33. Hole, G. J., George, P. A., Eaves, K. and Rasek, A. 2002. Effects of geometric distortions on face-recognition performance. Perception, 31 (10): 1221 - 1240. doi:10.1068/p3252 (doi:10.1068/p3252)
34. Jenkins, R. and Burton, A. M. 2008. 100% accuracy in automatic face recognition. Science, 319 (5862): 435 (doi:10.1126/science.1149656)
35. Jenkins, R. and Burton, A. M. 2011. Stable face representations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366 (1571): 1671 - 1683. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0379 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0379)
36. Jenkins, R., Burton, A. M. and White, D. 2006, April. " Face recognition from unconstrained images: Progress with prototypes ". In 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition Southampton. Washington, DC: IEEE Computer Society, pp. 25-30
37. Jenkins, R., White, D., van Montfort, X. and Burton, A. M. 2011. Variability in photos of the same face. Cognition, 121 (3): 313 - 323. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.001 (doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.001)
38. Kemp, R., Towell, N. and Pike, G. 1997. When seeing should not be believing: Photographs, credit cards and fraud. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11 (3): 211 - 222. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199706)11:3<211::AID-ACP430>3.0.CO;2-O)
39. Kirby, M. and Sirovich, L. 1990. Application of the Karhunen-Loeve procedure for the characterization of human faces. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 12 (1): 103 - 108. (doi:10.1109/34.41390)
40. Klatzky, R. L. and Forrest, F. H. 1984. Recognizing familiar and unfamiliar faces. Memory & Cognition, 12 (1): 60 - 70. (doi:10.3758/BF03196998)
41. Kleinberg, K., Vanezis, P. and Burton, A. M. 2007. Failure of anthropometry as a facial identification technique using high-quality photographs. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 52 (4): 779 - 783. (doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00458.x)
42. Leopold, D., O'Toole, A. J., Vetter, T. and Blanz, V. 2001. Prototype-referenced shape encoding revealed by high-level aftereffects. Nature Neuroscience, 4 (1): 89 - 94. (doi:10.1038/82947)
43. Loffler, G., Yourganov, G., Wilkinson, F. and Wilson, H. R. 2005. fMRI evidence for the neural representation of faces. Nature Neuroscience, 8 (10): 1386 - 1391. doi:10.1038/nn1538 (doi:10.1038/nn1538)
44. McKone, E., Kanwisher, N. and Duchaine, B. C. 2007. Can generic expertise explain special processing for faces?. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11 (1): 8 - 15. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.002 (doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.002)
45. Megreya, A. M. and Burton, A. M. 2006. Unfamiliar faces are not faces: Evidence from a matching task. Memory & Cognition, 34 (4): 865 - 876. (doi:10.3758/BF03193433)
46. Megreya, A. M. and Burton, A. M. 2007. Hits and false positives in face matching: A familiarity-based dissociation. Perception & Psychophysics, 69 (7): 1175 - 1184. (doi:10.3758/BF03193954)
47. Megreya, A. M. and Burton, A. M. 2008. Matching faces to photographs: Poor performance in eyewitness memory (without the memory). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14 (4): 364 - 372. (doi:10.1037/a0013464)
48. Murray, J. E., Yong, E. and Rhodes, G. 2000. Revisiting the perception of upside-down faces. Psychological Science, 11 (6): 492 - 496. (doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00294)
49. Natu, V. and O'Toole, A. J. 2011. The neural processing of familiar and unfamiliar faces: A review and synopsis. British Journal of Psychology, 102 (4): 726 - 747. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02053.x (doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02053.x)
50. O'Toole, A. J., An, X., Dunlop, J., Natu, V. and Phillips, P. J. 2012. Comparing face recognition algorithms to humans on challenging tasks. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, 9 (4:16) 13 pp. doi:10.1145/2355598.2355599
51. O'Toole, A. J., Edelman, S. and Bülthoff, H. H. 1998. Stimulus-specific effects in face recognition over changes in viewpoint. Vision Research, 38: 2351 - 2363. (doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00042-X)
52. Patterson, K. E. and Baddeley, A. D. 1977. When face recognition fails. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3 (4): 406 - 417. (doi:10.1037/0278-7393.3.4.406)
53. Richler, J. J., Mack, M. L., Palmeri, T. J. and Gauthier, I. 2011. Inverted faces are (eventually) processed holistically. Vision Research, 51 (3): 333 - 342. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2010.11.014 (doi:10.1016/j.visres.2010.11.014)
54. Roberts, T. and Bruce, V. 1989. Repetition priming of face recognition in a serial choice reaction-time task. British Journal of Psychology, 8: 201 - 211. (doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1989.tb02314.x)
55. Rossion, B. 2002. Is sex categorization from faces really parallel to face recognition?. Visual Cognition, 9 (8): 1003 - 1020. doi:10.1080/13506280143000485 (doi:10.1080/13506280143000485)
56. Rossion, B. 2008. Picture-plane inversion leads to qualitative changes of face perception. Acta Psychologica, 128 (2): 274 - 289. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.003 (doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.003)
57. Russell, R., Duchaine, B. and Nakayama, K. 2009. Super-recognizers: People with extraordinary face recognition ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16 (2): 252 - 257. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.2.252 (doi:10.3758/PBR.16.2.252)
58. Schweinberger, S. R., Huddy, V. and Burton, A. M. 2004. N250r: A face-selective brain response to stimulus repetitions. Neuroreport, 15 (9): 1501 - 1505. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000131675.00319.42 (doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000131675.00319.42)
59. Sekuler, A. B., Gaspar, C. M., Gold, J. M. and Bennett, P. J. 2004. Inversion leads to quantitative, not qualitative, changes in face processing. Current Biology, 14 (5): 391 - 396. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.02.028 (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.02.028)
60. Tanaka, J. W. and Gordon, I. 2011. " Features, configuration, and holistic face processing ". In Oxford handbook of face perception, Edited by: Calder, A. J., Rhodes, G., Johnson, M. and Haxby, J. 177 - 194. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
61. Turk, M. and Pentland, A. 1991. Eigenfaces for recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3 (1): 71 - 86. (doi:10.1162/jocn.1991.3.1.71)
62. Vokey, J. R. and Read, J. D. 1992. Familiarity, memorability, and the effect of typicality on the recognition of faces. Memory & Cognition, 20 (3): 291 - 302. (doi:10.3758/BF03199666)
63. Wang, R., Li, J., Fang, H., Tian, M. and Liu, J. 2012. Individual differences in holistic processing predict face recognition ability. Psychological Science, 23 (2): 169 - 177. doi:10.1177/0956797611420575 (doi:10.1177/0956797611420575)
64. Wiese, H. and Schweinberger, S. R. 2008. Event-related potentials indicate different processes to mediate categorical and associative priming in person recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34 (5): 1246 - 1263. doi:10.1037/a0012937 (doi:10.1037/a0012937)
65. Young, A. W. and Bruce, V. 2011. Understanding person perception. British Journal of Psychology, 102 (4): 959 - 974. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02045.x (doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02045.x)