External costs of transport in the United States

A Handbook of Transport Economics

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 341-368

  Delucchi, Mark ^a   McCubbin, Don ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84881870621     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4337/9780857930873.00023     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Abt Associates Inc., 2006, User’s Manual for the Co-benefits Risk Assessment (COBRA) Screening Model.Washington DC: Clean Energy-Environment State Partnership Program, US Environmental Protection Agency.
2. Andersson, H. and M. Ögren, 2007, Noise charges in railway infrastructure: a pricing schedule based on the marginal cost principle. Transport Policy, 14, 204–213.
3. Anthoff, D., C. Hepburn and R.S.J. Tol, 2009, Equity weighting and the marginal damage costs of climate change. Ecological Economics, 68, 836–849.
4. Bascom, R., P.A. Bromberg, D.A. Costa, R. Devlin, D.W. Dockery, M.W. Frampton, W. Lambert, J.M. Samet, F.E. Speizer and M. Utell., 1996, Health effects of outdoor air pollution. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 153 (1), 3–50.
5. Bickel, P., R. Friedrich, H. Link, L. Stewart and C. Nash, 2006, Introducing environmental externalities into transport pricing: measurements and implications, Transport Reviews. 26 (4), 389–415.
6. Blincoe, L.J., A. Seay, E. Zaloshnja, T. Miller, E. Romano, S. Luchter and R. Spicer, 2002, The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2000. DOT-HS-809-446. Washington DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, US Department of Transportation. Available at: www.nhtsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/DOT/NHTSA/Communication&ConsumerInformation/Articles/AssociatedFiles/EconomicImpact2000.pdf.
7. Bradford, D.F., 2001, Time, money, and tradeoffs. Nature, 410, 649–650.
8. Brauer, M., et al., 2008, Models of exposure for use in epidemiological studies of air pollution health impacts. In C. Borrego and A.I. Miranda, eds, Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIX, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science 1 Business Media B.V., Chapter 7.1, pp. 589–604.
9. Brueckner, J.K., 2002, Internalization of airport congestion. Journal of Air Transport Management, 8, 141–147.
10. Brueckner, J.K. and A.G. Largey, 2008, Social interaction and urban sprawl. Journal of Urban Economics, 64, 18–34.
11. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2007, Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2007. US Department of Transportation, Washington DC. Available at: www.bts.gov/publications/transportation_statistics_ annual_report/2007/.
12. Button, K., 2006, The political economy of parking charges in ‘first’ and ‘second-best’ worlds. Transport Policy, 13, 470–478.
13. Calfee, J. and C. Winston, 1998, The value of automobile travel time: implications for congestion policy. Journal of Public Economics, 69, 83–102.
14. Capaldo, K., J.J. Corbett, P. Kasibhatla, P. Fischbeck and S.N. Pandis, 1999, effects of ship emissions on sulphur cycling and radiative climate forcing over the ocean. Nature, 400, 743–746.
15. Carson, R.T., R.C. Mitchell, M. Hanemann, R.J. Kopp, S. Presser and P.A. Ruud, 2004, Contingent valuation and lost passive use: damages from the Exxon Valdez Oil spill. Environmental and Resource Economics, 25 (3), 257–286.
16. Cohen, A.J., H. Ross Anderson, B. Ostro, K.D. Pandey, M. Krzyzanowski, N. Kunzli, K. Gutschmidt, A. Pope, I. Romieu, J.M. Samet and K. Smith., 2005, The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health A, 68 (13–14), 1301–1307.
17. Congressional Budget Office, 2009, Using Pricing to Reduce Traffic Congestion. Pub. No. 3133, The Congress of the United States, Washington, DC. Available at: www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/97xx/doc9750/03-11-CongestionPricing.pdf.
18. Corbett, J.J., J.J. Winebrake, E.H. Green, P. Kasibhatla, V. Eyring and A. Lauer, 2007, Mortality from ship emissions: a global assessment. Environmental Science and Technology, 41, 8512–8518.
19. Davidson, P., K. Schere, R. Draxler, S. Kondragunta, R.A. Wayland, J.F. Meagher and R. Mathur, 2008, Toward a US national air quality forecast capability: current and planned capabilities. In C. Borrego and A.I. Miranda, eds, Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIX, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science 1 Business Media B.V., Chapter 2.15, pp.226–234.
20. Davis, S.C., S.W. Diegel and R.G. Bundy, 2008, Transportation Energy Data Book, ORNL-6981. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Available at: http://cta.ornl.gov/data/index.shtml.
21. Delucchi, M.A., 2000, Environmental externalities of motor-vehicle use in the US. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 34, 135–168.
22. Delucchi, M.A., 2004a, Personal nonmonetary costs of motor-vehicle use. UCD-ITS-RR-96-3(4) rev. 1. Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Available at: www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi.
23. Delucchi, M.A., 2004b, The annualized social cost of motor-vehicle use in the U.S., 1990-1991: Summary of Theory, Data, Methods, and Results. UCD-ITS-RR-96-3(1) rev. 1. Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Available at: www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi.
24. Delucchi, M.A., 2004c, Summary of the N onmonetary Externalities of Motor-Vehicle Use. UCD-ITS-RR-96-03(9) rev. 1. Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Available at: www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi.
25. Delucchi, M.A., 2007, Do motor-vehicle users in the US pay their way? Transportation Research Part A, 41, 982–1003.
26. Delucchi, M.A. and S.-L. Hsu, 1998, The external damage cost of noise from motor vehicles. Journal of Transportation and Statistics, 1 (3), 1–24.
27. Delucchi, M.A. and J. Murphy, 2008a, US Military expenditures to protect the use of Persian-Gulf oil for motor vehicles. Energy Policy, 36, 2253–2264.
28. Delucchi, M.A. and J. Murphy, 2008b, How large are tax subsidies to motor-vehicle users in the US?, Transport Policy, 15, 196–208.
29. Delucchi, M.A., J.J. Murphy and D.R. McCubbin, 2002, The health and visibility cost of air pollution: a comparison of estimation methods. Journal of Environmental Management, 64, 139–152.
30. Delucchi, M.A., et al., 2003, A lifecycle emissions model (LEM): lifecycle emissions from transportation fuels, motor vehicles, transportation modes, electricity use, heating and cooking fuels, and materials. UCD-ITSRR-03-17. Davis, California: Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. Available at: www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi.
31. Dennis, S.M., 2004, Improvement in BTS estimation of ton-miles. Working paper 2004-002-OAS, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, US Department of Transportation. Available at: www.bts.gov/programs/ bts_working_papers/2004/paper_02/pdf/entire.pdf.
32. Dennis, S.M., 2007, A decade of growth in domestic freight. Special Report SR-002, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, US Department of Transportation. Available at: www.bts.gov/publications/bts_special_ report/2007_07_27/.
33. Edlin, A.S., 2002, Per-mile premiums for auto insurance. Working paper no. E02-318, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley. Available at: http://repositories.cdlib.org/iber/econ/.
34. Elvik, R., 1994, The external costs of Traffic injury: Definition, estimation, and possibilities for internalization. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 26, 719–732.
35. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2008, Annual Energy Review 2007, DOE/EIA-0384(2007), Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Available at: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/contents.html.
36. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1996, Indicators of the Environmental Impacts of Transportation. Final report, Washington DC: Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, June.
37. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2005, Clean Air Interstate Rule: Emissions Inventory Technical Support Document. March 4. Available at: http://epa.gov/CAIR/pdfs/Finaltech01.pdf.
38. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2008, Regulatory impact analysis: control of emissions of air pollution from locomotive engines and marine compression ignition engines less than 30 liters per cylinder. EPA report # EPA420-R-08-001. Washington DC, March.
39. Evans, A., 1994, Editorial: transport safety. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 27 (1), 3–6.
40. Eyring, V., H.W. Köhler, J. can Aardenne and A. Lauer, 2005, Emissions from international shipping. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, D17305, doi:10.1029/2004JD005619.
41. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 1997, Highway Cost Allocation Study (HCAS). US Department of Transportation, Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
42. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 2000, Highway Statistics 2000. US Department of Transportation, Washington DC. Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/hs00/index.htm.
43. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 2005, Assessing the effects of freight movement on air quality at the national and regional level. Final Report, Washington DC. Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ environment/freightaq/.
44. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 2008, Congestion Pricing, A Primer: Overview. FHWA-HOP-08-039, Office of Transportation Management, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation, Washington DC. Available at: http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop08039/ fhwahop08039.pdf.
45. Feitelson, E. and O. Rotem, 2004, The case for taxing surface parking. Transport Research Part D, 9, 319–333.
46. Fisher, B., 2008, Uncertainty in air quality decision making. In C. Borrego and A.I. Miranda, eds, Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIX, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science 1 Business Media B.V., Chapter 4.4, pp. 376–384.
47. Forkenbrock, D.J., 1999, External costs of intercity truck freight transportation. Transportation Research Part A, 33, 505–526.
48. Forkenbrock, D.J., 2001, Comparison of external costs of rail and truck freight transportation. Transportation Research Part A, 35, 321–337.
49. Freeman, A.M., 2000, Water pollution policy. In Public Policies for Environmental Protection, 2nd edn, P.R. Portney and R.N. Stavins eds. Washington DC: Resources for the Future, pp. 169–214.
50. Fuglestvedt, J., T. Berntsen, G. Myhre, K. Rypdal and R.B. Skeie, 2008, Climate forcing from the transport sectors. PNAS, 105 (2), 454–458.
51. Gaffield, S.J., R.L. Goo, L.A. Richards and R.J. Jackson, 2003, Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1527–1533.
52. Galloway, J.N., et al., 2004, Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future, Biogeochemistry, 70, 153–226.
53. Gilliland, A.B., J.M. Godowitch, C. Hogrefe and S.T. Rao, 2008, Evaluating regional-scale air quality models. In C. Borrego and A.I. Miranda, eds, Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIX, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science 1 Business Media B.V., Chapter 4.8, pp. 412–419.
54. Gorman, M.F., 2008, Evaluating the public investment mix in US freight transportation infrastructure. Transportation Research Part A, 42, 1–14.
55. Granato, G.E., P.E. Church, and V.J. Stone, 1996, Mobilization of major and trace constituents of highway runoffin groundwater potentially caused by deicing chemical migration. Transportation Research Record, 1483, 92–104.
56. Greene, D.L. and S. Ahmad, 2005, Costs of U. S. Oil Dependence: 2005 Update. ORNL/TM-2005/45, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Available at: http://cta.ornl.gov/cta/Publications/ Reports/ORNL_TM2005_45.pdf.
57. Grigalunas, T.A., R.C. Anderson, G.M. Brown Jr., R. Congar, N.F. Meade and P.E. Sorensen, 1986, Estimating the cost of oil spills: lessons from the Amoco Cadiz incident. Marine Resource Economics, 2 (3), 239–262.
58. Haling, D. and H. Cohen, 1995, Air quality cost analysis spreadsheet. Provided to Forkenbrock et al., 2001, Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Washington DC.
59. Hensher, D.A., 2006, Integrating accident and travel delay externalities in an urban speed reduction context. Transport Reviews, 26 (4), 521–534.
60. Hogrefe, C., J.-Y. Ku, G. Sistla, A. Gilliland, J.S. Irwin, P.S. Porter, E. Gégo, P. Kasibhatla, and S.T. Rao, 2008, Has the performance of regional-scale photochemical modelling systems changed over the past decade? In C. Borrego and A.I. Miranda, eds, Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XIX, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science 1 Business Media B.V., Chapter 4.6, pp. 394–403.
61. Huddart, L., 1978, An evaluation of the visual impact of rural roads and Traffic. Supplementary Report 355, Crowthorne, England: Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
62. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, Climate Change 2007: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, S. Solomon, D. Qin M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available at: www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg1.htm.
63. Janic, M., 2007, Modelling the full costs of an intermodal and road freight transport network. Transportation Research Part D, 12, 33–44.
64. Jansson, J.O., 1994, Accident externality charges. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 27 (1), 31–43.
65. Jones, D.W., P.N. Leiby and I.K. Paik, 2004, Oil price shocks and the macroeconomy: what has been learned since 1996. The Energy Journal, 25 (2), 1–32.
66. Leiby, P.N., 2007, Estimating the energy security benefits of reduced US oil imports. ORNL/TM-2007/028, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, February 28 (revised March 14, 2008). Available at: www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/ornl-tm-2007-028.pdf.
67. Leksell, I. and A. Rabl, 2001, Air pollution and mortality: Quantification and valuation of years of life lost. Risk Analysis, 21 (5), 843–857.
68. Lemp, J.D. and K.M. Kockelman, 2008, Quantifying the external costs of vehicle use: evidence from America’s top-selling light-duty models. Transportation Research Part D, 13, 491–504.
69. Levinson, D., D. Gillen and A. Kanafani, 1998, The social costs of intercity transportation: a review and comparison of air and highway. Transport Reviews, 18 (3), 215–240.
70. Levinson, D., J.M. Mathieu, D. Gillen and A. Kanafani, 1997, The full cost of high-speed rail: an engineering approach. Annals of Regional Science, 31, 189–215.
71. Link, H., 2005, Transport accounts: methodological concepts and empirical results. Journal of Transport Geography, 13, 41–57.
72. Lyons, G., J. Jain and D. Holley, 2007, The use of travel time by rail passengers in Great Britain. Transport Research Part A, 41, 107–120.
73. Maibach, M., C. Schreyer, D. Sutter, H.P. van Essen, B.H. Boon, R. Smokers, A. Schroten, C. Doll, B. Pawlowska and M. Bak, 2007, Handbook on Estimation of Extermal Cost in the Transport Sector. The Netherlands: CE Delft. Available at: www.rapportsysteem.nl/artikel/index.php?id5702&action5read..
74. Mani, A., and M. Fisher, 2009, Port peak pricing program evaluation. FHWA-HOP-09-014, Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation, Washington DC. Available at: www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/ publications/fhwahop09014/index.htm.
75. Manne, A.S. and R.G. Richels, 2001, An alternative approach to establishing trade-offs among greenhouse gases. Nature, 410, 675–677.
76. McCarthy, J.E., 2008, Air Pollution from Ships: MARPOL Annex VI and Other Control Options. Congressional Research Service, Washington DC. Available at: http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/08July/ RL34548.pdf.
77. McCubbin, D.R. and M.A. Delucchi, 1999, The health costs of motor-vehicle related air pollution. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 33, 253–286.
78. Miedema, H.M.E. and C.G.M. Oudshoorn, 2001, Annoyance from transportation noise: relationships with exposure metrics DNL and DENL and their confidence intervals. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109 (4), 409–416.
79. Miller, T.R., 1997, Societal costs of transportation crashes. In D.L. Greene, D.W. Jones and M.A. Delucchi, eds, Measuring the Full Social Costs and benefits of Transportation. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag, pp. 281–314.
80. Miller, T.R., D. Levy, R. Spicer and D. Lestina, 1998, Allocating the cost of motor vehicle crashes between vehicle types. Transportation Research Record, 1635, 81–97.
81. Moore, J.E., 1978, Design for Good Acoustics and Noise Control. New York: Macmillan Press Ltd.
82. Morrison, S.A., and C. Winston, 2008, The effect of FAA expenditures on air travel delays. Journal of Urban Economics, 63, 669–678.
83. Muller, N.Z. and R. Mendelsohn, 2007, Measuring the damages of air pollution in the United States. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 54, 1–14.
84. Murphy, J.J., M.A. Delucchi, D.R. McCubbin and H.J. Kim, 1999, The cost of crop damage caused by ozone air pollution from motor vehicles. Journal of Environmental Management, 55, 273–289.
85. Murray, D.M., and U.F.W. Ernst, 1976, An economic analysis of the environmental impact of highway deicing. EPA-600/2-76-105, Cincinnati, Ohio, US Environmental Protection Agency.
86. Nash, C., T. Sansom and B. Still, 2001, Modifying transport prices to internalise externalities: evidence from European case studies. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 31, 413–431.
87. National Research Council, Committee on Health, Environmental, and Other External Costs and Benefis of Energy Production and Consumption, 2010, Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use. Washington DC: National Academies Press. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/ catalog/12794.html.
88. Nelson, J.P., 2008, Hedonic property value studies of transportation noise: aircraft and road Traffic. In A. Baranzini, J. Ramirez, C. Schaerer and P. Thalmann, eds, Hedonic Methods in Housing Markets. Berlin: Springer, pp. 57–82.
89. Newbery, D.M., 1998, Fair payment from road users. A review of the evidence on social and environmental costs, Hampshire, England. AA Group Public Policy.
90. Nijkamp, P., G. Vindigni, and P.A.L.D. Nunes, 2008, Economic valuation of biodiversity: a comparative study. Ecological Economics, 67, 217–231.
91. Ozbay, K., and J. Berechman, 2001, Estimation and evaluation of full marginal costs of highway transportation in New Jersey. Journal of Transportation and Statistics 4, 81–104.
92. Ozbay, K., B. Bartin, O. Yanmaz-Tuzel and J. Berechman, 2007, Alternative methods for estimating full marginal costs of highway transportation. Transportation Research Part A, 41, 768–786.
93. Parry, I.W.H., M. Walls and W. Harrington, 2007, Automobile externalities and policies, Journal of Economic Literature, 45, 373–399.
94. Pearce, D., 2003, The social cost of carbon and its policy implications. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19, 362–384.
95. Poole, R.W. and B. Dachis, 2007, Congestion pricing for the New York airports: reducing delays while promoting growth and competition. Reason Foundation, Policy Study 366.
96. Quinet, E., 2004, A meta-analysis of Western European external cost estimates. Transportation Research Part D, 9, 456–476.
97. Reiss, R., E.L. Anderson, C.E. Cross, G. Hidy, D. Hoel, R. McClellan and S. Moolgavkar, 2007, Evidence of health impacts of sulfate-and nitrate-containing particles in ambient air. Inhalation Toxicology, 19 (5), 419–49.
98. Riera, P., A. Mhawej, R. Mavsar and R. Brey, 2006, Fixed-effects hedonic price model for statistical value of life estimations. Transport Reviews, 26 (4), 487–500.
99. Samet, J. and D. Krewski, 2007, Health effects associated with exposure to ambient air pollution. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health A, 70 (3-4), 227–242.
100. Sausen, R., I. Isaksen, V. Grewe, D. Hauglustaine, D.S. Lee, G. Myhre, M.O. Köhler, G. Pitari, U. Schumann, F. Stordal and C. Zerefos, 2005, Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on the IPCC (1999). Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 14 (4), 555–561.
101. Sawyer, D. and S. Stiebert, 2007, Evaluation of Total Cost of Air Pollution Due to Transportation in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Marbek Resource Consultants Ltd. Available at: http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/collection_2008/tc/T22-148-2007E.pdf.
102. Schrank, D. and T. Lomax, 2007, The 2007 Urban Mobility Report. Texas Transportation Institute, The Texas A&M University System, September. Available at: http://mobility.tamu.edu.
103. Shoup, D., 2005, The High Cost of Free Parking. Chicago, IL: APA Planners Press.
104. Small, K.A., R. Noland, X. Chu and D. Lewis, 1999, Valuation of Travel-Time Savings and Predictability in Congested Conditions for Highway User-Cost Estimation. National Highway Cooperative Research Program Report 431, Washington, DC, National Academy Press. Available at: http://pubsindex.trb.org/document/ view/default.asp?lbid5492077.
105. Small, K.A. and C. Kazimi, 1995, On the costs of air pollution from motor vehicles. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 29 (1), 7–32.
106. Soguel, N.C., 1995, Costing the Traffic barrier effect: a contingent valuation survey. Environmental and Resource Economics, 6, 301–308.
107. Starnes, M., 2008, Trends in Non-Fatal Traffic Injuries: 1996-2005, DOT-HS-810-944, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, US Department of Transportation, Washington DC. Available at: http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/810944.pdf.
108. Steimetz, Seiji S.C., 2003, Defensive driving and the external costs of accidents and travel delays. Job-Market Paper, Department of Economics, University of California, Irvine.
109. Tesche, T.W., 1988, Accuracy of ozone air quality models. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 114 (4), 739–752.
110. Tol, R.S.J., 2003, Is the uncertainty about climate change too large for expected cost–Benefit analysis? Climatic Change, 56, 265–289.
111. US Department of Transportation, 2008, National Transportation Statistics. Research and Innovative Technology Administration, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Available at: http://www.bts.gov/ publications /national_transportation_statistics/.
112. Van Bohemen, H.D., 1995, Mitigation and compensation of habitat fragmentation caused by roads: strategy, objectives, and practical measures. Transportation Research Record, 1475, 133–137.
113. Vickrey, W., 1968, Automobile accidents, tort law, externalities, and insurance: an economist’s critique. Law and Contemporary Problems, 33, 464–487.
114. Viscusi, W.K. and J.E. Aldy, 2003, The value of a statistical life: a critical review of market estimates throughout the world. The Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 27 (1), 5–76.
115. Vitaliano, D.F., 1992, An economic assessment of the social costs of highway salting and the efficiency of substituting a new deicing material. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 11 (3), 397–418.
116. Wahba, M. and C. Hope, 2006, The marginal impact of carbon dioxide under two scenarios of future emissions. Energy Policy, 34, 3305–3316.
117. Wang, M.Q., 1999, Greet 1.5: Transportation Fuel-Cycle Model. ANL/ESD-39, Argonne, Illinois, Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory, August. See the GREET website at: www.transportation. anl.gov/modeling_simulation/GREET/index.html.
118. Willis, K.G., G.D. Garrod, and D.R. Harvey, 1998, A review of cost–benefit analysis as applied to the evaluation of new road proposals in the UK. Transportation Research Part D, 3, 141–156.
119. Woodbury, S., 1987, Aesthetic nuisance: the time has come to recognize it. Natural Resources Journal, 27, 877–886.
120. Zhang, A., A.E. Boardman, D. Gillen and W.G. Waters II, 2004, Towards Estimating the Social and Environmental Transportation in Canada. Centre for Transportation Studies, Sauder School of Business, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. Available at: www.tc.gc.ca/pol/en/Report/FullCostInvestigation/Transmodal/t003/t003.pdf.