Physical rehabilitation of the critically Ill trauma patient in the ICU

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 41, Issue 7, 2013, Pages 1790-1801

  Engels, Paul T ^a   Beckett, Andrew N ^b,c   Rubenfeld, Gordon D ^b   Kreder, Hans ^d   Finkelstein, Joel A ^d   Da Costa, Leodante ^d   Papia, Giuseppe ^b   Rizoli, Sandro B ^b   Tien, Homer C ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c Canadian Forces Health Services   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

critical care; early ambulation; occupational therapy; physical therapy modalities; rehabilitation; wounds and injuries

Indexed keywords

ABDOMINAL INJURY; BIOMECHANICS; BLOOD VESSEL INJURY; CERVICAL SPINE INJURY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; FRACTURE FIXATION; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MOBILIZATION; MULTIPLE TRAUMA; MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURY; PELVIS INJURY; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANGE OF MOTION; REHABILITATION CARE; REVIEW; RIB FRACTURE; THORAX INJURY; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

CRITICAL ILLNESS; EARLY AMBULATION; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY; PHYSICAL THERAPY MODALITIES; TIME FACTORS; WOUNDS AND INJURIES;

EID: 84880523670     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: 15300293     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a2abf     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. De Jonghe B, Sharshar T, Lefaucheur JP, et al; Groupe de Réflexion et d'Etude des Neuromyopathies en Réanimation: Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: A prospective multicenter study. JAMA 2002; 288:2859-2867
2. Fletcher SN, Kennedy DD, Ghosh IR, et al: Persistent neuromuscular and neurophysiologic abnormalities in long-term survivors of prolonged critical illness. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:1012-1016
3. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group: One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:683-693
4. Bailey P, Thomsen GE, Spuhler VJ, et al: Early activity is feasible and safe in respiratory failure patients. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:139-145
5. Needham DM: Mobilizing patients in the intensive care unit: Improving neuromuscular weakness and physical function. JAMA 2008; 300:1685-1690
6. Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, et al: Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 373:1874-1882
7. Kress JP: Clinical trials of early mobilization of critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2009; 37(10 Suppl):S442-S447
8. Holtslag HR, Post MW, van der Werken C, et al: Return to work after major trauma. Clin Rehabil 2007; 21:373-383
9. Jackson JC, Obremskey W, Bauer R, et al: Long-term cognitive, emotional, and functional outcomes in trauma intensive care unit survivors without intracranial hemorrhage. J Trauma 2007; 62:80-88
10. Soberg HL, Bautz-Holter E, Roise O, et al: Long-term multidimensional functional consequences of severe multiple injuries two years after trauma: A prospective longitudinal cohort study. J Trauma 2007; 62:461-470
11. Miller RS, Patton M, Graham RM, et al: Outcomes of trauma patients who survive prolonged lengths of stay in the intensive care unit. J Trauma 2000; 48:229-234
12. Hippocrates: The Genuine Works of Hippocrates. London, The Sydenham Society, 1849
13. Hilton J: On the Influence of Mechanical and Physiological Rest in the Treatment of Accidents and Surgical Disease and the Diagnostic Value of Pain. Bell and Daldy, London, 1863
14. Dock W: The evil sequelae of complete bed rest. JAMA 1944; 125:1083-1085
15. Allen C, Glasziou P, Del Mar C: Bed rest: A potentially harmful treatment needing more careful evaluation. Lancet 1999; 354: 1229-1233
16. Nash CE, Mickan SM, Del Mar CB, et al: Resting injured limbs delays recovery: A systematic review. J Fam Pract 2004; 53:706-712
17. Westerman RW, Hull P, Hendry RG, et al: The physiological cost of restricted weight bearing. Injury 2008; 39:725-727
18. Kellett J: Acute soft tissue injuries - A review of the literature. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18:489-500
19. Järvinen TA, Kääriäinen M, Järvinen M, et al: Muscle strain injuries. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2000; 12:155-161
20. Kannus P: Immobilization or early mobilization after an acute soft-tissue injury? Phys Sportsmed 2000; 28:55-63
21. Lucas-Championniere J: Les dangers de l'immobilisation des membres- fragilite des os-alternation de la nutrition de la membre-conclusions pratiques. Rev Med Chur Pratique 1907; 78:81-87
22. Kakar S, Einhorn TA: Biology and enhancement of skeletal repair. In: Skeletal Trauma. Browner BB, Jupiter JB, Levine AM, et al (Eds). Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 2008, pp 33-49
23. Stedman: Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Twenty-Eighth Edition. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2005
24. Porter S (Ed): Tidy's Physiotherapy. Fourteenth Edition. Philadelphia, Elsevier, 2008
25. Osada D, Kamei S, Masuzaki K, et al: Prospective study of distal radius fractures treated with a volar locking plate system. J Hand Surg Am 2008; 33:691-700
26. Lenoble E, Dumontier C, Goutallier D, et al: Fracture of the distal radius. A prospective comparison between trans-styloid and Kapandji fixations. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1995; 77:562-567
27. Jakob M, Rikli DA, Regazzoni P: Fractures of the distal radius treated by internal fixation and early function. A prospective study of 73 consecutive patients. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2000; 82:340-344
28. Gupta R: Intercondylar fractures of the distal humerus in adults. Injury 1996; 27:569-572
29. Gupta R, Khanchandani P: Intercondylar fractures of the distal humerus in adults: A critical analysis of 55 cases. Injury 2002; 33:511-515
30. Jeon IH, Kim SY, Kim PT: Primary ligament repair for elbow dislocation. Keio J Med 2008; 57:99-104
31. Ashwood N, Bain GI, Unni R: Management of Mason type-III radial head fractures with a titanium prosthesis, ligament repair, and early mobilization. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004; 86:274-280
32. Oni OO, Hoskinson J: The 'stove-in shoulder': Results of treatment by early mobilization. Injury 1992; 23:444-446
33. Maripuri SN, Debnath UK, Rao P, et al: Simple elbow dislocation among adults: A comparative study of two different methods of treatment. Injury 2007; 38:1254-1258
34. Unsworth-White J, Koka R, Churchill M, et al: The non-operative management of radial head fractures: A randomized trial of three treatments. Injury 1994; 25:165-167
35. Liow RY, Cregan A, Nanda R, et al: Early mobilisation for minimally displaced radial head fractures is desirable. A prospective randomised study of two protocols. Injury 2002; 33:801-806
36. Ekelund AL, Nilsson OS: Early mobilization of isolated ulnar-shaft fractures. Acta Orthop Scand 1989; 60:261-262
37. Millett PJ, Rushton N, Millet PJ: Early mobilization in the treatment of Colles' fracture: A 3 year prospective study. Injury 1995; 26:671-675
38. McAuliffe TB, Hilliar KM, Coates CJ, et al: Early mobilisation of Colles' fractures. A prospective trial. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1987; 69:727-729
39. Davis TR, Buchanan JM: A controlled prospective study of early mobilization of minimally displaced fractures of the distal radial metaphysis. Injury 1987; 18:283-285
40. Dias JJ, Wray CC, Jones JM, et al: The value of early mobilisation in the treatment of Colles' fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1987; 69:463-467
41. Solanki PV, Mulgaonkar KP, Rao SA: Effect of early mobilisation on grip strength, pinch strength and work of hand muscles in cases of closed diaphyseal fracture radius-ulna treated with dynamic compression plating. J Postgrad Med 2000; 46:84-87
42. Kekilli E, Ertem K, Yagmur C, et al: Transient bone loss of distal radius and ulna following clean-cut tendon injuries, repair and passive mobilisation. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 2007; 32:320-325
43. Blake-Toker AM, Hawkins L, Nadalo L, et al: CT guided percutaneous fixation of sacroiliac fractures in trauma patients. J Trauma 2001; 51:1117-1121
44. Hupel TM, McKee MD, Waddell JP, et al: Primary external fixation of rotationally unstable pelvic fractures in obese patients. J Trauma 1998; 45:111-115
45. Hunt N, Jennings A, Smith M: Current management of U-shaped sacral fractures or spino-pelvic dissociation. Injury 2002; 33:123-126
46. Nork SE, Jones CB, Harding SP, et al: Percutaneous stabilization of U-shaped sacral fractures using iliosacral screws: Technique and early results. J Orthop Trauma 2001; 15:238-246
47. Cohen MA, Sadler AH: Treatment of pelvic fractures and associated dislocations. Orthop Rev 1986; 15:142-153
48. Riemer BL, Butterfield SL, Diamond DL, et al: Acute mortality associated with injuries to the pelvic ring: The role of early patient mobilization and external fixation. J Trauma 1993; 35:671-675; discussion 676
49. Ponsen KJ, Hoek van Dijke GA, Joosse P, et al: External fixators for pelvic fractures: Comparison of the stiffness of current systems. Acta Orthop Scand 2003; 74:165-171
50. Johnson J, Anderson C, Barrett A, et al: Roller traction: Mobilizing patients with acetabular fractures. Orthop Nurs 1995; 14:21-24
51. Dogra AS, Rangan A: Early mobilisation versus immobilisation of surgically treated ankle fractures. Prospective randomised control trial. Injury 1999; 30:417-419
52. DiStasio AJ II, Jaggears FR, DePasquale LV, et al: Protected early motion versus cast immobilization in postoperative management of ankle fractures. Contemp Orthop 1994; 29:273-277
53. Tropp H, Norlin R: Ankle performance after ankle fracture: A randomized study of early mobilization. Foot Ankle Int 1995; 16:79-83
54. Vioreanu M, Dudeney S, Hurson B, et al: Early mobilization in a removable cast compared with immobilization in a cast after operative treatment of ankle fractures: A prospective randomized study. Foot Ankle Int 2007; 28:13-19
55. van Laarhoven CJ, Meeuwis JD, van der Werken C: Postoperative treatment of internally fixed ankle fractures: A prospective randomised study. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1996; 78:395-399
56. Cimino W, Ichtertz D, Slabaugh P: Early mobilization of ankle fractures after open reduction and internal fixation. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1991; 267:152-156
57. Thordarson DB, Krieger LE: Operative vs. nonoperative treatment of intra-articular fractures of the calcaneus: A prospective randomized trial. Foot Ankle Int 1996; 17:2-9
58. Court-Brown CM, Christie J, McQueen MM: Closed intramedullary tibial nailing. Its use in closed and type I open fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1990; 72:605-611
59. Merriam WF, Porter KM: Hindfoot disability after a tibial shaft fracture treated by internal fixation. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1983; 65:326-328
60. Hung LK, Lee SY, Leung KS, et al: Partial patellectomy for patellar fracture: Tension band wiring and early mobilization. J Orthop Trauma 1993; 7:252-260
61. Ali AM, Saleh M, Bolongaro S, et al: The strength of different fixation techniques for bicondylar tibial plateau fractures - A biomechanical study. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2003; 18:864-870
62. Port AM, McVie JL, Naylor G, et al: Comparison of two conservative methods of treating an isolated fracture of the lateral malleolus. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1996; 78:568-572
63. Low CK, Mesenas S, Lam KS: Results of closed intra-articular calcaneal fractures treated with early mobilisation and without reduction. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1995; 24:820-822
64. Marwah V, Gadegone WM, Magarkar DS: The treatment of fractures of the tibial plateau by skeletal traction and early mobilisation. 1985; 9:217-221
65. Eiff MP, Smith AT, Smith GE: Early mobilization versus immobilization in the treatment of lateral ankle sprains. Am J Sports Med 1994; 22:83-88
66. Dettori JR, Pearson BD, Basmania CJ, et al: Early ankle mobilization, Part I: The immediate effect on acute, lateral ankle sprains (a randomized clinical trial). Mil Med 1994; 159:15-20
67. Konradsen L, Hølmer P, Søndergaard L: Early mobilizing treatment for grade III ankle ligament injuries. Foot Ankle 1991; 12:69-73
68. Shrier I: Treatment of lateral collateral ligament sprains of the ankle: A critical appraisal of the literature. Clin J Sport Med 1995; 5:187-195
69. Saleh M, Marshall PD, Senior R, et al: The Sheffield splint for controlled early mobilisation after rupture of the calcaneal tendon. A prospective, randomised comparison with plaster treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1992; 74:206-209
70. Costa ML, MacMillan K, Halliday D, et al: Randomised controlled trials of immediate weight-bearing mobilisation for rupture of the tendo Achillis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2006; 88:69-77
71. Lynch RM: Achilles tendon rupture: Surgical versus non-surgical treatment. Accid Emerg Nurs 2004; 12:149-158
72. Saw Y, Baltzopoulos V, Lim A, et al: Early mobilization after operative repair of ruptured Achilles tendon. Injury 1993; 24:479-484
73. Crites BM: Treatment of Achilles ruptures and tendinopathy. Curr Opin Orthop 2004; 15:113-117
74. Pneumaticos SG, Phd PCN, McGarvey WC, et al: The effects of early mobilization in the healing of Achilles tendon repair. Foot Ankle Int 2000; 21:551-557
75. Sorrenti SJ: Achilles tendon rupture: Effect of early mobilization in rehabilitation after surgical repair. Foot Ankle Int 2006; 27:407-410
76. Wong J, Barrass V, Maffulli N: Quantitative review of operative and nonoperative management of Achilles tendon ruptures. Am J Sports Med 2002; 30:565-575
77. Risberg MA, Lewek M, Snyder-Mackler L: A systematic review of evidence for anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation: How much and what type? Phys Ther Sport 2004; 5:125-145
78. Bhargava SP, Hynes MC, Dowell JK: Traumatic patella tendon rupture: Early mobilisation following surgical repair. Injury 2004; 35:76-79
79. Enad JG, Loomis LL: Patellar tendon repair: Postoperative treatment. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81:786-788
80. Ahl T, Dalén N, Lundberg A, et al: Early mobilization of operated on ankle fractures. Prospective, controlled study of 40 bimalleolar cases. Acta Orthop Scand 1993; 64:95-99
81. Lindy PB, Boynton MD, Fadale PD: Repair of patellar tendon disruptions without hardware. J Orthop Trauma 1995; 9:238-243
82. Enad JG, Loomis LL: Primary patellar tendon repair and early mobilization: Results in an active-duty population. J South Orthop Assoc 2001; 10:17-23
83. Karlsson J, Lundin O, Lind K, et al: Early mobilization versus immobilization after ankle ligament stabilization. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1999; 9:299-303
84. Sharpe DT, Cardoso E, Baheti V: The immediate mobilisation of patients with lower limb skin grafts: A clinical report. Br J Plast Surg 1983; 36:105-108
85. Wood SH, Lees VC: A prospective investigation of the healing of grafted pretibial wounds with early and late mobilisation. Br J Plast Surg 1994; 47:127-131
86. Budny PG, Lavelle J, Regan PJ, et al: Pretibial injuries in the elderly: A prospective trial of early mobilisation versus bed rest following surgical treatment. Br J Plast Surg 1993; 46:594-598
87. Bosse MJ, Sims S, Kellam JF: External fixation of supracondylar femur fractures in the multiple-trauma patient. Tech Orthop 1995; 9:221-224
88. Browner BD, Burgess AR, Robertson RJ, et al: Immediate closed antegrade Ender nailing of femoral fractures in polytrauma patients. J Trauma 1984; 24:921-927
89. Buckley JR, Caiach SM: External fixation in comminuted upper femoral fractures. Injury 1993; 24:476-478
90. Miric DM, Bumbasirevic MZ, Senohradski KK, et al: Pelvifemoral external fixation for the treatment of open fractures of the proximal femur caused by firearms. Acta Orthop Belg 2002; 68:37-41
91. Dwyer AJ, Paul R, Mam MK, et al: Floating knee injuries: Long-term results of four treatment methods. Int Orthop 2005; 29:314-318
92. Lundy DW, Johnson KD: "Floating knee" injuries: Ipsilateral fractures of the femur and tibia. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2001; 9:238-245
93. Friedman RJ, Wyman ET Jr: Ipsilateral hip and femoral shaft fractures. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1986; 208:188-194
94. Crawford JR, Khan RJ, Varley GW: Early management and outcome following soft tissue injuries of the neck - A randomised controlled trial. Injury 2004; 35:891-895
95. Söderlund A, Olerud C, Lindberg P: Acute whiplash-associated disorders (WAD): The effects of early mobilization and prognostic factors in long-term symptomatology. Clin Rehabil 2000; 14:457-467
96. McKinney LA: Early mobilisation and outcome in acute sprains of the neck. BMJ 1989; 299:1006-1008
97. Mealy K, Brennan H, Fenelon GC: Early mobilization of acute whiplash injuries. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986; 292:656-657
98. Kalff R, Kocks W, Grote W, et al: Operative spondylodesis in injuries of the lower cervical spine. Neurosurg Rev 1993; 16:211-220
99. Albert TJ, Kim DH: Timing of surgical stabilization after cervical and thoracic trauma. Invited submission from the Joint Section Meeting on Disorders of the Spine and Peripheral Nerves, March 2004. J Neurosurg Spine 2005; 3:182-190
100. Lambiris E, Zouboulis P, Tyllianakis M, et al: Anterior surgery for unstable lower cervical spine injuries. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2003; 411:61-69
101. de Peretti F, Hovorka I, Cambas PM, et al: Short device fixation and early mobilization for burst fractures of the thoracolumbar junction. Eur Spine J 1996; 5:112-120
102. Devilee R, Sanders R, de Lange S: Treatment of fractures and dislocations of the thoracic and lumbar spine by fusion and Harrington instrumentation. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 1995; 114:100-102
103. Svendgaard NA, Cronqvist S, Delgado T, et al: Treatment of severe cervical spine injuries by anterior interbody fusion with early mobilization. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1982; 60:91-105
104. Daffner SD, Vaccaro AR, Katsos MS, et al: Advances in operative stabilization for unstable cervical spine injuries: Implications for early mobilization and rehabilitation. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2003; 9:1-13
105. Louw JA: Unstable fractures of the thoracic and lumbar spine treated with Harrington distraction instrumentation and sublaminar wires. S Afr Med J 1987; 71:759-762
106. Jacobs RR, Casey MP: Surgical management of thoracolumbar spinal injuries. General principles and controversial considerations. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1984; 189:22-35
107. Rao NK, Fardoun R, Akkaya Y, et al: Early mobilization following anterior fixation with bone graft and metal plate in traumatic cervical fracture dislocations. Ann Saudi Med 1991; 11:189-193
108. Cancelliere M, Montinaro A, Cantisani PL, et al: Surgical treatment of acute cervical fracture-dislocation. J Neurosurg Sci 1981; 25:79-83
109. Wang D, Teddy PJ, Henderson NJ, et al: Mobilization of patients after spinal surgery for acute spinal cord injury. Spine 2001; 26:2278-2282
110. Croce MA, Bee TK, Pritchard E, et al: Does optimal timing for spine fracture fixation exist? Ann Surg 2001; 233:851-858
111. Campagnolo DI, Esquieres RE, Kopacz KJ: Effect of timing of stabilization on length of stay and medical complications following spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 1997; 20:331-334
112. Chow GH, Nelson BJ, Gebhard JS, et al: Functional outcome of thoracolumbar burst fractures managed with hyperextension casting or bracing and early mobilization. Spine 1996; 21:2170-2175
113. Parry H, Delargy M, Burt A: Early mobilisation of patients with cervical cord injury using the halo brace device. Paraplegia 1988; 26:226-232
114. Ekong CE, Schwartz ML, Tator CH, et al: Odontoid fracture: Management with early mobilization using the halo device. Neurosurgery 1981; 9:631-637
115. Willén J: Unstable thoracolumbar injuries. Orthopedics 1992; 15:329-335
116. Illman A, Stiller K, Williams M: The prevalence of orthostatic hypotension during physiotherapy treatment in patients with an acute spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2000; 38:741-747
117. Morris CG, McCoy EP, Lavery GG, et al: Spinal immobilisation for unconscious patients with multiple injuries. BMJ 2004; 329:495-499
118. Irdesel J, Aydiner SB, Akgoz S: Rehabilitation outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2007; 18:5-15
119. Eilander HJ, Wijnen VJ, Scheirs JG, et al: Children and young adults in a prolonged unconscious state due to severe brain injury: Outcome after an early intensive neurorehabilitation programme. Brain Inj 2005; 19:425-436
120. Lipper-Grüner M, Wedekind CH, Klug N: Functional and psychosocial outcome one year after severe traumatic brain injury and earlyonset rehabilitation therapy. J Rehabil Med 2002; 34:211-214
121. Kajs-Wyllie M, Holman V, Trager R Jr: Enhancing recovery via neurorehab rounds. J Neurosci Nurs 1993; 25:153-157
122. Koch SM, Fogarty S, Signorino C, et al: Effect of passive range of motion on intracranial pressure in neurosurgical patients. J Crit Care 1996; 11:176-179
123. Brimioulle S, Moraine JJ, Norrenberg D, et al: Effects of positioning and exercise on intracranial pressure in a neurosurgical intensive care unit. Phys Ther 1997; 77:1682-1689
124. Luther MS, Krewer C, Müller F, et al: Orthostatic circulatory disorders in early neurorehabilitation: A case report and management overview. Brain Inj 2007; 21:763-767
125. Zachariades N, Mezitis M, Mourouzis C, et al: Fractures of the mandibular condyle: A review of 466 cases. Literature review, reflections on treatment and proposals. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2006; 34:421-432
126. Al-Belasy FA: A short period of maxillomandibular fixation for treatment of fractures of the mandibular tooth-bearing area. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2005; 63:953-956
127. Tanaka H, Yukioka T, Yamaguti Y, et al: Surgical stabilization of internal pneumatic stabilization? A prospective randomized study of management of severe flail chest patients. J Trauma 2002; 52:727- 732; discussion 732
128. London JA, Parry L, Galante J, et al: Safety of early mobilization of patients with blunt solid organ injuries. Arch Surg 2008; 143:972- 976; discussion 977
129. Kreder HJ: What is the role of splinting for comfort? In: Evidence- Based Orthopaedics. Wright JG (Ed). Philadelphia, Saunders, 2009, pp 326-331
130. Meyer MJ, Megyesi J, Meythaler J, et al: Acute management of acquired brain injury part I: An evidence-based review of non-pharmacological interventions. Brain Inj 2010; 24:694-705
131. Meyer MJ, Megyesi J, Meythaler J, et al: Acute management of acquired brain injury part II: An evidence-based review of pharmacological interventions. Brain Inj 2010; 24:706-721
132. Garzon-Serrano J, Ryan C, Waak K, et al: Early mobilization in critically ill patients: Patients' mobilization level depends on health care provider's profession. PM R 2011; 3:307-313
133. Singhi SC, Tiwari L: Management of intracranial hypertension. Indian J Pediatr 2009; 76:519-529
134. Castillo LR, Gopinath S, Robertson CS: Management of intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin 2008; 26:521-541
135. Barbosa AP, Cabral SA: [New therapies for intracranial hypertension]. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2003; 79(Suppl 2):S139-S148
136. Akins PT, Guppy KH: Sinking skin flaps, paradoxical herniation, and external brain tamponade: A review of decompressive craniectomy management. Neurocrit Care 2008; 9:269-276
137. Kerr JT, Chu FW, Bayles SW: Cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea: Diagnosis and management. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2005; 38:597-611
138. Thompson HJ: Managing patients with lumbar drainage devices. Crit Care Nurse 2000; 20:59-68
139. Andreoli CM, Gardiner MF: Open globe injuries: Emergent evaluation and initial management. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com. Accessed January 1, 2011
140. Tang AT, Velissaris TJ, Weeden DF: An evidence-based approach to drainage of the pleural cavity: Evaluation of best practice. J Eval Clin Pract 2002; 8:333-340
141. Cook CC, Gleason TG: Great vessel and cardiac trauma. Surg Clin North Am 2009; 89:797-820, viii
142. Pasquale M, Fabian TC: Practice management guidelines for trauma from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. J Trauma 1998; 44:941-956; discussion 956
143. Open Abdomen Advisory Panel, Campbell A, Chang M, Fabian T, et al: Management of the open abdomen: From initial operation to definitive closure. Am Surg 2009; 75:S1-S22
144. Schatzker J, Tile M (Eds): The Rationale of Operative Fracture Care. Heidelberg, Springer, 2005
145. Perry M: Maxillofacial trauma - Developments, innovations and controversies. Injury 2009; 40:1252-1259
146. Shrager JB: Tracheal trauma. Chest Surg Clin N Am 2003; 13:291-304
147. Butterfield JS, Fitzgerald JB, Razzaq R, et al: Early mobilization following angioplasty. Clin Radiol 2000; 55:874-877