Toxic epidermal necrolysis: Part II. Prognosis, sequelae, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, prevention, and treatment

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 187.e1-187.e16

  Schwartz, Robert A ^a   McDonough, Patrick H ^a   Lee, Brian W ^a  

^a RUTGERS NEW JERSEY MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

biologics; cyclosporine; drug eruption; erythema multiforme; granulysin; intravenous immunoglobulin; penicillin; plasmapheresis; Stevens Johnson syndrome; systemic steroids; toxic epidermal necrolysis

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; BIOLOGICAL PRODUCT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CYCLOSPORIN; GRANULYSIN; HIGH MOBILITY GROUP B1 PROTEIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LEUKOCYTE ANTIGEN; STEROID; SULFONAMIDE;

ARTICLE; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; EYE INJURY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LUNG DISEASE; MORTALITY; PHARMACOGENETICS; PLASMAPHERESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; SKIN BIOPSY; TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS; UROGENITAL TRACT DISEASE;

EID: 84880372333     PISSN: 01909622     EISSN: 10976787     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2013.05.002     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. T. Harr, and L.E. French Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome Orphanet J Rare Dis 5 2010 39
2. P. Sekula, A. Dunant, M. Mockenhaupt, L. Naldi, J.N. Bouwes Bavinck, and S. Halevy Comprehensive survival analysis of a cohort of patients with Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis J Invest Dermatol 133 2013 1197 1204
3. R. Rajaratnam, C. Mann, P. Balasubramaniam, J.R. Marsden, S.M. Taibjee, and F. Shah Toxic epidermal necrolysis: retrospective analysis of 21 consecutive cases managed at a tertiary centre Clin Exp Dermatol 35 2010 853 862
4. S. Bastuji-Garin, N. Fouchard, M. Bertocchi, J.C. Roujeau, J. Revuz, and P. Wokenstein SCORTEN: a severity of illness score for toxic epidermal necrolysis J Invest Dermatol 115 2000 149 153
5. J.T. Trent, R.S. Kirsner, P. Romanelli, and F.A. Kerdel Use of SCORTEN to accurately predict mortality in patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis in the United States Arch Dermatol 140 2004 890 892
6. R. Cartotto, M. Mayich, D. Nickerson, and M. Gomez SCORTEN accurately predicts mortality among toxic epidermal necrolysis patients treated in a burn center J Burn Care Res 29 2008 141 146
7. S. Guégan, S. Bastuji-Garin, E. Poszepczynska-Guigné, J.C. Roujeau, and J. Revuz Performance of the SCORTEN during the first five days of hospitalization to predict the prognosis of epidermal necrolysis J Invest Dermatol 126 2006 272 276
8. J.S. Hague, J.M. Goulding, T.M. Long, and B.C. Gee Respiratory involvement in toxic epidermal necrolysis portends a poor prognosis that may not be reflected in SCORTEN Br J Dermatol 157 2007 1294 1296
9. A. Oplatek, K. Brown, S. Sen, M. Halerz, K. Supple, and R.L. Gamelli Long term follow-up of patients treated for toxic epidermal necrolysis J Burn Care Res 27 2006 26 33
10. L. Valeyrie-Allanore, S. Bastuji-Garin, S. Guégan, N. Ortonne, M. Bagot, and J.C. Roujeau Prognostic value of histologic features of toxic epidermal necrolysis J Am Acad Dermatol 68 2013 e29 e35
11. E.K. Yeong, C.H. Lee, F.C. Hu, and M.Z. Wu Serum bicarbonate as a marker to predict mortality in toxic epidermal necrolysis J Intensive Care Med 26 2011 250 254
12. I. Ducic, A. Shalom, W. Rising, K. Nagamoto, and A.M. Munster Outcome of patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome revisited Plast Reconstr Surg 110 2002 768 773
13. J. Revuz, D. Penso, J.C. Roujeau, J.C. Guillaume, C.R. Payne, and J. Wechsler Toxic epidermal necrolysis: clinical findings and prognostic factors in 87 patients Arch Dermatol 123 1987 1160 1165
14. R. Ruiz-Maldonado Acute disseminated epidermal necrolysis types 1,2 and 3: study of 60 cases J Am Acad Dermatol 13 1985 623 635
15. R. Avakian, F.P. Flowers, O.E. Araujo, and F.A. Ramos-Caro Toxic epidermal necrolysis: a review J Am Acad Dermatol 25 1991 69 79
16. G. Goerz, and D. Tsambaos Eruptive nevocytic nevi after Lyell's syndrome Arch Dermatol 114 1978 1400 1401
17. E. Meneux, B.J. Paniel, F. Pouget, J. Revuz, J.C. Roujeau, and P. Wolkenstein Vulvovaginal sequelae in toxic epidermal necrolysis J Reprod Med 42 1997 153 156
18. E. Meneux, P. Wolkenstein, B. Haddad, J.C. Roujeau, J. Revuz, and B.J. Paniel Vulvovaginal involvement in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a retrospective study of 40 cases Obstet Gynecol 91 1998 283 287
19. R.L. Sheridan, J.T. Schulz, C.M. Ryan, J.J. Schnitzer, D. Lawlor, and D.N. Driscoll Long-term consequences of toxic epidermal necrolysis in children Pediatrics 109 2002 74 78
20. J. Haber, W. Hopman, M. Gomez, and R. Cartotto Late outcomes in adult survivors of toxic epidermal necrolysis after treatment in a burn center J Burn Care Rehabil 26 2005 33 41
21. J. Wilkins, L. Morrison, and C.R. White Oculocutaneous manifestations of the erythema multiforme/Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis spectrum Dermatol Clin 10 1992 571 582
22. S. Magina, C. Lisboa, V. Leal, J. Palmares, and J. Mesquita- Guimarães Dermatological and ophthalmological sequels in toxic epidermal necrolysis Dermatology 207 2003 33 36
23. M.A. Di Pascuale, E.M. Espana, D.T. Liu, T. Kawakita, W. Li, and Y.Y. Gao Correlation of corneal complications with eyelid cicatricial pathologies in patients with Stevens-Jonson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome Ophthalmology 112 2005 904 912
24. A.D. Sanmarkan, T. Sori, D.M. Thappa, and T.J. Jaisankar Retrospective analysis of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis over a period of 10 years Indian J Dermatol 56 2011 25 29
25. K.J. Kim, D.P. Lee, H.S. Suh, M.W. Lee, J.H. Choi, and K.C. Moon Toxic epidermal necrolysis: analysis of clinical course and SCORTEN-based comparison of mortality rate and treatment modalities in Korean patients Acta Derm Venereol 85 2005 497 502
26. J. Gueudry, J.C. Roujeau, M. Binaghi, G. Soubrane, and M. Muraine Risk factors for the development of ocular complications of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Arch Dermatol 145 2009 157 162
27. R. Hazin, O.A. Ibrahimi, M.I. Hazin, and A. Kimyai-Asadi Stevens-Johnson syndrome: pathogenesis diagnosis, and management Ann Med 40 2008 129 138
28. A. Downey, C. Jackson, N. Harun, and A. Cooper Toxic epidermal necrolysis: review of pathogenesis and management J Am Acad Dermatol 66 2012 995 1003
29. P.D. Ghislain, and J.C. Roujeau Treatment of severe drug reactions: Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis and hypersensitivity syndrome Dermatol Online J 8 2002 5
30. J.G. Morelli Evaluation of the patient R.M. Kliegman, B.F. Stanton, J.W. St. Gemelll, N.F. Schor, R.E. Behrman, Nelson textbook of pediatrics 2011 Elsevier Saunders Philadelphia (PA) 2214.e2 2214.e11
31. F. Gaultier, J. Rochefort, M.M. Landru, L. Allanore, A. Naveau, and J.C. Roujeau Severe and unrecognized dental abnormalities after drug-induced epidermal necrolysis Arch Dermatol 145 2009 1332 1333
32. T.K. Patel, M.J. Barvaliya, D. Sharma, and C. Tripathi A systematic review of the drug-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in Indian population Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 79 2013 389 398
33. R.A. McIvor, J. Zaidi, W.J. Peters, and R.H. Hyland Acute and chronic respiratory complications of toxic epidermal necrolysis J Burn Care Rehabil 17 1996 237 240
34. N. Kamada, K. Kinoshita, Y. Togawa, T. Kobayashi, H. Matsubara, and M. Kohno Chronic pulmonary complications associated with toxic epidermal necrolysis: report of a severe case with anti-Ro/SS-A and a review of the published work J Dermatol 33 2006 616 622
35. P.P. Sedghizadeh, S.K. Kumar, A. Gorur, C. Mastin, and A.L. Boros Toxic epidermal necrolysis with a rare long-term oral complication requiring surgical intervention Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 105 2008 e29 e33
36. D.S. Edell, A.A. Muelenaer, M. Majure, and J.J. Davidson Unusual manifestation of Stevens-Johnson syndrome involving the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract Pediatrics 89 1992 429 432
37. S.A.A. Gardezi, A.H. Kazmi, S. Aman, M. Nadeem, M.S. Khan, and M. Sohail A clinicoetiological study of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis J Parkistan Assoc Dermatol 23 2013 5 13
38. R.A. Schwartz Toxic epidermal necrolysis Cutis 59 1997 123 128
39. L.E. French, and C. Prins Toxic epidermal necrolysis J.L. Bolognia, J.L. Jorizzo, R.P. Rapini, Dermatology 2003 Mosby Edinburgh 323 331
40. H. Assier, S. Bastuji-Garin, J. Revuz, and J.C. Roujeau Erythema multiforme with mucous-membrane involvement and Stevens-Johnson syndrome are clinically different disorders with distinct causes Arch Dermatol 131 1995 539 543
41. A. Auquier-Dunant, M. Mockenhaupt, L. Naldi, O. Correia, W. Schroder, and J.C. Roujeau Correlations between clinical patterns and causes of erythema multiforme majus, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis: results of an international prospective study Arch Dermatol 138 2002 1019 1024
42. R. Watanabe, H. Watanabe, C. Sotozono, A. Kokaze, and M. Iijima Critical factors differentiating erythema multiforme majus from Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS)/toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) Eur J Dermatol 21 2011 889 894
43. R.A. Schwartz, and M. Dmochowski The erythema multiforme spectrum: pathogenesis, pathology and links with the pemphigus spectrum Postepy Dermatol 15 1998 7 23
44. B. Rzany, O. Hering, M. Mockenhaupt, W. Schroder, E. Goerttler, and J. Ring Histopathological and epidemiological characteristics of patients with erythema exudativum multiforme major, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Br J Dermatol 135 1996 6 11
45. D. Gerson, V. Sriganeshan, and J.B. Alexis Cutaneous drug eruptions: a 5-year experience J Am Acad Dermatol 59 2008 995 999
46. H. Hosaka, S. Ohtoshi, T. Nakada, and M. Iijima Erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: frozen section diagnosis J Dermatol 37 2010 407 412
47. J. Murata, R. Abe, and H. Shimizu Increased soluble Fas ligand levels in patients with Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis preceding skin detachment J Allergy Clin Immunol 122 2008 992 1000
48. S.J. Posadas, A. Padial, M.J. Torres, C. Mayorga, L. Leyva, and E. Sanchez Delayed reactions to drugs show levels of perforin, granzyme B, and Fas-L to be related to disease severity J Allergy Clin Immunol 109 2002 155 161
49. M. Caproni, E. Antiga, A. Parodi, D. Schena, A. Marzano, and P. Quaglino Elevated circulating CD40 ligand in patients with erythema multiforme and Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis spectrum Br J Dermatol 154 2006 1006 1007
50. R. Abe, N. Yoshioka, J. Murata, Y. Fujita, and H. Shimizu Granulysin as a marker for early diagnosis of the Stevens-Johnson syndrome Ann Intern Med 151 2009 514 515
51. Y. Fujita, N. Yoshioka, R. Abe, J. Murata, D. Hoshina, and H. Mae Rapid immunochromatographic test for serum granulysin is useful for the prediction of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis J Am Acad Dermatol 65 2011 65 68
52. Callen JP. On the horizon: test to predict Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis. Journal Watch. Available at: http://dermatology.jwatch. org. Accessed August 30, 2012.
53. S. Nakajima, H. Watanabe, M. Tohyama, K. Sugita, M. Iijima, and K. Hashimoto High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) as a novel diagnostic tool for toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome Arch Dermatol 147 2011 1110 1112
54. Innovation Beyond Limits International. HMGB1 ELISA 2012. Available at: http://www.ibl-international.com. Accessed August 30, 2012.
55. S. Kapoor Emerging new markers of toxic epidermal necrolysis J Intensive Care Med 28 2013 72
56. E. Morel, L. Alvarez, R. Cabañas, A. Fiandor, R. Díaz, and S. Escamochero Expression of alpha-defensin 1-3 in T cells from severe cutaneous drug-induced hypersensitivity reactions Allergy 66 2011 360 367
57. A.V. Marzano, A. Frezzolini, M. Caproni, A. Parodi, D. Fanoni, and P. Quaglino Immunohistochemical expression of apoptotic markers in drug-induced erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 20 2007 557 566
58. S.J. Yun, M.S. Choi, M.S. Piao, J.B. Lee, S.J. Kim, and Y.H. Won Serum lactate dehydrogenase is a novel marker for the evaluation of disease severity in the early stage of toxic epidermal necrolysis Dermatology 217 2008 254 259
59. P. Paquet, and G.E. Pierard Glutathione-s-transferase pi expression in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a marker of putative oxidative stress in keratinocytes Skin Pharmacol Physiol 20 2007 66 70
60. O. Sokumbi, and D.A. Wetter Clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of erythema multiforme: a review for the practicing dermatology Int J Dermatol 51 2012 889 902
61. O. Yamasaki, T. Yamaguchi, M. Sugai, C. Chapuis-Cellier, F. Arnaud, and F. Vandenesch Clinical manifestations of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome depend on serotypes of exfoliative toxins J Clin Microbiol 43 2005 1890 1893
62. M. Mockenhaupt, M. Idzko, M. Grosber, E. Schopf, and J. Norgauer Epidemiology of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in Germany J Invest Dermatol 124 2005 700 703
63. F.A. Pereira, A.V. Mudgil, and D.M. Rosmarin Toxic epidermal necrolysis J Am Acad Dermatol 56 2007 181 200
64. E. Gentilhomme, M. Faure, Y. Piemont, P. Binder, and J. Thivolet Action of staphylococcal exfoliative toxins on epidermal cell cultures and organotypic skin J Dermatol 17 1990 526 532
65. B.A. Solky, L. Pincus, and R.F. Horan Vancomycin-induced linear IgA bullous dermatosis: morphology is a key to diagnosis Cutis 73 2004 65 67
66. H. Onodera, M.C. Mihm Jr., A. Yoshida, and T. Akasaka Drug-induced linear IgA bullous dermatosis J Dermatol 32 2005 759 764
67. P.M. Collier, and F. Wojnarowska Drug-induced linear immunoglobulin A disease Clin Dermatol 11 1993 529 533
68. H.C. McDonald, N.R. York, and A.G. Pandya Drug-induced linear IgA bullous dermatosis demonstrating the isomorphic phenomenon J Am Acad Dermatol 62 2010 897 898
69. M. Camilleri, and J.L. Pace Drug-induced linear immunoglobulin-A bullous dermatosis Clin Dermatol 16 1998 389 391
70. I. Khan, R. Hughes, S. Curran, and P. Marren Drug-associated linear IgA disease mimicking toxic epidermal necrolysis Clin Exp Dermatol 34 2009 715 717
71. R.P. Dellavalle, J.M. Burch, S. Tayal, L.E. Golitz, J. Fitzpatrick, and P. Walsh Vancomycin-associated linear IgA bullous dermatosis mimicking toxic epidermal necrolysis J Am Acad Dermatol 48 5 suppl 2003 S56 S57
72. R. Chavan, and R. el-Azhary Cutaneous graft-versus-host disease: rationales and treatment options Dermatol Ther 24 2011 219 228
73. A. Sidoroff, S. Halevy, J.N. Bavinck, L. Vaillant, and J.C. Roujeau Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP): a clinical reaction pattern J Cutan Pathol 28 2001 113 119
74. Z. Husain, B.Y. Reddy, and R.A. Schwartz DRESS syndrome: Part I. Clinical perspectives J Am Acad Dermatol 68 2013 693 705
75. B. Rzany, O. Correia, J.P. Kelly, L. Naldi, A. Auquier, and R. Stern Risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis during first weeks of antiepileptic therapy: a case-control study Lancet 353 1999 2190 2194
76. S.R. Knowles, J. Uetrecht, and N.H. Shear Idiosyncratic drug reactions: the reactive metabolite syndromes Lancet 356 2001 1587 1591
77. C.G. Slatore, and S.A. Tilles Sulfonamide hypersensitivity Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 24 2004 477 490
78. A. Nassif, A. Bensussan, L. Boumsell, A. Deniaud, H. Moslehi, and P. Wolkenstein Toxic epidermal necrolysis: effector cells are drug-specific cytotoxic T cells J Allergy Clin Immunol 114 2004 1209 1215
79. P. Paquet, E. Jacob, P. Damas, and G.E. Pierard Recurrent fatal drug- induced toxic epidermal necrolysis (Lyell's syndrome) after putative beta-lactam cross-reactivity: case report and scrutiny of antibiotic imputability Crit Care Med 30 2002 2580 2583
80. P. Chen, J.J. Lin, C.S. Lu, C.T. Ong, P.F. Hsieh, and C.C. Yang Carbamazepine-induced toxic effects and HLA-B*1502 screening in Taiwan N Engl J Med 364 2011 1126 1133
81. S. Mallal, E. Phillips, G. Carosi, J.M. Molina, C. Workman, and J. Tomazic HLA-B*5701 screening for hypersensitivity to abacavir N Engl J Med 358 2008 568 579
82. C.Y. Shen, and Y.T. Chen Response 1 to pharmacogenetic screening to prevent carbamazepine-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: a critical appraisal Br Assoc Dermatol 166 2012 11 12
83. P.B. Ferrell Jr., and H.L. McLeod Carbamazepine, HLA-B1502 and risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: US FDA recommendations Pharmacogenomics 9 2008 1543 1546
84. US Food and Drug Administration website. Information for healthcare professionals: dangerous or even fatal skin reactions-carbamazepine. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ PostmarketdrugsafetyinformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm124718.htm. Accessed August 30, 2012.
85. K. Wu Pharmacogenetic screening to prevent carbamazepine-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: a critical appraisal Br J Dermatol 166 2012 7 11
86. Y. Kano, K. Hirahara, Y. Mitsuyama, R. Takahashi, and T. Shiohara Utility of the lymphocyte transformation test in the diagnosis of drug sensitivity: dependence on its timing and the type of drug eruption Allergy 62 2007 1439 1444
87. Y.H. Tang, M. Mockenhaupt, A. Henry, M. Bounoua, L. Naldi, and S. Le Gouvello Poor relevance of a lymphocyte proliferation assay in lamotrigine-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis Clin Exp Allergy 42 2012 248 254
88. A.T. Borchers, J.L. Lee, S.M. Naguwa, G.S. Cheema, and E. Gershwin Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Autoimmun Rev 7 2008 598 605
89. T. McGee, and A. Munster Toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome: mortality rate reduced with early referral to a regional burn center Plast Reconstr Surg 102 1998 1018 1022
90. T.L. Palmieri, D.G. Greenhalgh, J.R. Saffle, R.J. Spence, M.D. Peck, and J.C. Jeng A multicenter review of toxic epidermal necrolysis treated in U.S. burn centers at the end of the twentieth century J Burn Care Rehabil 23 2002 87 96
91. P. Boorboor, P.M. Vogt, F.G. Bechara, Q. Alkandari, M. Aust, and A. Gohritz Toxic epidermal necrolysis: use of Biobrane or skin coverage reduces pain, improves mobilization and decreases infection in elderly patients Burns 34 2008 487 492
92. X. Li, D. Wang, Z. Lu, J. Chen, H. Zhang, and L. Sun Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in drug-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 27 2013 659 661
93. R.J. Lehloenya, F. Esmail, S.J. Christians, D. Motsepe, and G. Todd Toxic epidermal necrolysis with failure of re-epithelialization. Could umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell transplantation have a role? J Euro Acad Dermatol Venereol 27 2013 923 925
94. X. Li, D. Wang, Z. Lu, J. Chen, H. Zhang, and L. Sun Answer to 'Toxic epidermal necrolysis with failure of re-epithelialization. Could umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell transplantation have a role?' J Euro Acad Dermatol Venereol 27 2013 925
95. S.H. Huang, S.H. Wu, I.F. Sun, S.S. Lee, C.S. Lai, and S.D. Lin Aquacel Ag in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) Burns 34 2008 63 66
96. D.G. Gregory Treatment of acute Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis using amniotic membrane: a review of 10 consecutive cases Ophthalmology 118 2011 908 914
97. B. Tougeron-Brousseau, A. Delcampe, J. Gueudry, L. Vera, S. Doan, and T. Hoang-Xuan Vision-related function after scleral lens fitting in ocular complications of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Am J Ophthalmol 148 2009 852 859
98. I. Viard, P. Wehril, R. Bullani, P. Schneider, N. Holler, and D. Salomon Inhibition of toxic epidermal necrolysis by blockade of CD95 with human intravenous immunoglobulin Science 282 1998 490 493
99. R. Zajicek, D. Pintar, L. Broz, H. Suca, and R. Konigova Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome at the Prague Burn Centre 1998-2008 J Euro Acad Dermatol Venereol 26 2012 639 643
100. C. Prins, F.A. Kerdel, R.S. Padilla, T. Hunziker, S. Chimenti, and I. Viard Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins: multicenter retrospective analysis of 48 consecutive cases Arch Dermatol 139 2003 26 32
101. J.T. Trent, R.S. Kirsner, P. Romanelli, and F.A. Kerdel Analysis of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis using SCORTEN: The University of Miami Experience Arch Dermatol 139 2003 39 43
102. N. Al-Mutairi, J. Arun, N.E. Osama, Z. Amr, A.S. Mazen, and A. Ibtesam el Prospective, noncomparative open study from Kuwait of the role of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis Int J Dermatol 43 2004 847 851
103. M. Stella, P. Cassano, D. Bollero, A. Clemente, and G. Giorio Toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with intravenous high-dose immunoglobulins: our experience Dermatology 203 2001 45 49
104. K. Mangla, S. Rastogi, P. Goyal, R.B. Solanki, and R.C. Rawal Efficacy of low dose intravenous immunoglobulins in children with toxic epidermal necrolysis: an open uncontrolled study Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 71 2005 398 400
105. K.M. Brown, G.M. Silver, M. Halerz, P. Walaszek, A. Sandroni, and R.L. Gamelli Toxic epidermal necrolysis: does immunoglobulin make a difference? J Burn Care Rehabil 25 2004 81 88
106. R. Shortt, M. Gomez, N. Mittman, and R. Cartotto Intravenous immunoglobulin does not improve outcome in toxic epidermal necrolysis J Burn Care Rehabil 25 2004 246 255
107. N. Bachot, J. Revuz, and J.C. Roujeau Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment for Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a prospective noncomparative study showing no benefit on mortality or progression Arch Dermatol 139 2003 33 36
108. J. Schneck, J.P. Fagot, P. Sekula, B. Sassolas, J.C. Roujeau, and M. Mockenhaupt Effects of treatments on the mortality of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a retrospective study on patients included in the prospective EuroSCAR study J Am Acad Dermatol 58 2008 33 40
109. K. Pehr The EuroSCAR study: cannot agree with the conclusions J Am Acad Dermatol 59 2008 898 899
110. M. Stella, A. Clemente, D. Bollero, D. Risso, and P. Dalmasso Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS): experience with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins and topical conservative approach. A retrospective analysis Burns 33 2007 452 459
111. Y. Yang, J. Xu, F. Li, and X. Zhu Combination therapy of intravenous immunoglobulin and corticosteroid in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: a retrospective comparative study in China Int J Dermatol 48 2009 1122 1128
112. S. Workswick, and J. Cotliar Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a review of treatment options Dermatol Ther 24 2011 207 218
113. Y.C. Huang, Y.C. Li, and T.J. Chen The efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis: a systemic review and meta-analysis Br J Dermatol 167 2012 424 432
114. P.H. Halebian, V.J. Corder, M.R. Madden, J.L. Finklestein, and G.T. Shires Improved burn center survival of patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis managed without corticosteroids Ann Surg 204 1986 503 512
115. S.H. Kardaun, and M.F. Jonkman Dexamethasone pulse therapy for Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis Acta Derm Venereol 87 2007 144 148
116. R. Gerull, M. Nelle, and T. Schaible Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: A review Critical Care Med 139 2011 1521
117. Q.Y. Zhu, L. Ma, X.Q. Luo, and H.Y. Huang Toxic epidermal necrolysis: performance of SCORTEN and the score-based comparison of the efficacy of corticosteroid therapy and intravenous immunoglobulin combined therapy in China J Burn Care Res 33 2012 e295 e308
118. K. Patmanidis, A. Sidiras, K. Dolianitis, D. Simelidis, C. Solomonidis, and G. Gaitanis Combination of infliximab and high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin for toxic epidermal necrolysis: successful treatment of an elderly patient Case Rep Dermatol Med 2012 2012 915314
119. Y.M. Narita, K. Hirahara, Y. Mizukawa, Y. Kano, and T. Shiohara Efficacy of plasmapheresis for the treatment of severe toxic epidermal necrolysis: is cytokine expression analysis useful in predicting its therapeutic efficacy? J Dermatol 38 2011 236 245
120. G.C. Chaidemenos, F. Chrysomallis, K. Sombolos, O. Mourellou, D. Ioannides, and M. Papakonstantinou Plasmapheresis in toxic epidermal necrolysis Int J Dermatol 36 1997 218 221
121. G. Bamichas, T. Natse, F. Christidou, M. Stangou, A. Karagianni, and S. Koukourikos Plasma exchange in patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis Ther Apher 6 2002 255 258
122. H. Yamada, K. Takamori, H. Yaguchi, and H. Ogawa A study of the efficacy of plasmapheresis for the treatment of drug induced toxic epidermal necrolysis Ther Apher 2 1998 153 156
123. C.A. Egan, W.J. Grant, S.E. Morris, J.R. Saffle, and J.J. Zone Plasmapheresis as an adjunct treatment in toxic epidermal necrolysis J Am Acad Dermatol 40 1999 458 461
124. M. Kostal, M. Blha, M. Lanska, M. Kostalova, V. Blaha, and E. Stepanova Beneficial effects of plasma exchange in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis: a series of four cases J Clin Apheresis 27 2012 215 220
125. P. Wolkenstein, J. Latarjet, J.C. Roujeau, C. Duguet, S. Boudeau, and L. Vaillant Randomized comparison of thalidomide versus placebo in toxic epidermal necrolysis Lancet 352 1998 1586 1589
126. M. Fischer, E. Fiedler, W.C. Marsch, and J. Wohlrab Antitumor necrosis factor-alpha antibodies (infliximab) in the treatment of a patient with toxic epidermal necrolysis Br J Dermatol 146 2002 707 709
127. B. Kreft, J. Wohlrab, I. Bramsiepe, R. Eismann, M. Winkler, and W.C. Marsch Etoricoxib-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis: successful treatment with infliximab J Dermatol 37 2010 904 906
128. E. Gubinelli, F. Canzona, T. Tonanzi, D. Raskovic, and B. Didona Toxic epidermal necrolysis successfully treated with etanercept J Dermatol 36 2009 150 153
129. J.C. Roujeau Treatment of severe drug eruptions J Dermatol 26 1996 718 722
130. A. de Sica-Chapman, G. Williams, N. Soni, and C.B. Bunker Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and Chelsea and Westminster TEN management protocol Br J Dermatol 162 2010 860 865
131. V. Goulden, and M.J. Goodfield Recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in the management of toxic epidermal necrolysis Br J Dermatol 135 1996 305 306
132. A. Velez, and J.C. Moreno Toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with N-acetylcysteine J Am Acad Dermatol 46 2002 469 470
133. C. Saavedra, P. Cardenas, H. Castellanos, K. Contreras, and J.R. Castro Cephazolin-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with intravenous immunoglobulin and N-acetylcysteine Case Rep Immunol 2012 2012 1 4
134. L. Valeyrie-Allanore, P. Wolkenstein, L. Brochard, N. Ortonne, B. Maitre, and Revuz Open trial of ciclosporin treatment for Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis Br J Dermatol 163 2010 847 853
135. J.M. Arevalo, J.A. Lorente, C. Gonzalez-Herrada, and J. Jimenez-Reyes Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with cyclosporine A J Trauma 48 2000 473 478