Safeguards for tobacco control: Options for the TPPA

American Journal of Law and Medicine

Volumn 39, Issue 2-3, 2013, Pages 382-441

  Stumberg, Robert ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY LAW CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; HEALTH; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LEGAL ASPECT; PATENT; TOBACCO INDUSTRY;

COMMERCE; HUMANS; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY; INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; TOBACCO INDUSTRY; WORLD HEALTH;

MLCS; MLOWN;

EID: 84880049672     PISSN: 00988588     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009885881303900210     Document Type: Article

References (409)

1. See COUNCIL ON SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS, AM. MED. ASS'N, IMPACT OF U. S. TOBACCO EXPORTS ON THE WORLDWIDE SMOKING EPIDEMIC 1-3(1989), available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zyn52f00/pdf;jsessionid= 8E44A3B350560BC29FC6DCBD7ACE6B0Ctobacco03;
2. see also Greg N. Connolly, Tobacco and United States Trade Sanctions, in SMOKING AND HEALTH 1987, at 351, 351-54 (Masakazu Aoki et al. eds., 1988);
3. E. R. Shaffer et al., International Trade Agreements: A Threat to Tobacco Control Policy, 14 TOBACCO CONTROL (Supp. II) ii19, ii21-ii22 (2005).
4. Allyn Taylor et al., The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Tobacco Consumption, in TOBACCO CONTROL IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 343, 355 (Prabhat Jha & Frank Chaloupka eds., 2000).
5. Zoe Davidson & Maud S. Beelman, U. S. Support for Tobacco Overseas: Going Out of Business?, CTR. FOR PUB. INTEGRITY (Nov. 2, 1999), http://www.publicintegrity.org/1999/11/02/3328/us-support-tobacco-overseas- going-out-business.
6. Panel Report, Thailand-Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes, ¶¶ 78-81, DS10/R-37S/200 (Oct. 5, 1990).
7. PRABHAT JHA ET AL., THE WORLD BANK, CURBING THE EPIDEMIC: GOVERNMENTS AND THE ECONOMICS OF TOBACCO CONTROL 14-15 (1999);
8. see Frank J. Chaloupka & Adit Laixuthai, U. S. Trade Policy and Cigarette Smoking in Asia 12-15 (Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. 5543, 1996);
9. DOUGLAS BETTCHER ET AL., COMM'N FOR MACROECONOMICS & HEALTH, CONFRONTING THE TOBACCO EPIDEMIC IN AN ERA OF TRADE LIBERALIZATION 51-53 (2001);
10. CAMPAIGN FOR TOBACCO-FREE KIDS, PUBLIC HEALTH AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE VOLUME II: TARIFFS AND PRIVATIZATION 7-8 (2002);
11. BENN MCGRADY, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, CONFRONTING THE TOBACCO EPIDEMIC IN A NEW ERA OF TRADE AND INVESTMENT LIBERALIZATION 26 (2012) ("[T]he literature has reached a point where it is safe to assume that there is a risk that trade liberalization and foreign direct investment may stimulate competition and consumption in the tobacco sector and consumer demand.").
12. Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-117, § 510, 123 Stat. 3034, 3151.
13. Exec. Order No. 13193, 66 Fed. Reg. 7387 (Jan. 18, 2001).
14. See, e.g., United States-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, U. S.-Peru, ch. 2, Annex 2.3, Apr. 12, 2006, OFFICE OF THE U. S. TRADE REPRESENTATIVE [USTR], http://www.ustr.gov/tradeagreements/free-trade-agreements/peru-tpa/final-text [hereinafter U. S.-Peru FTA]
15. (see item number 24012083; description: Cigarettes containing tobacco but not containing clove, paper-wrapped; base rate: $1.05/kg + 2.3%; category for reduction: A; negotiations to eliminate tariffs on processed tobacco leaf and cigarettes would eliminate the tariff under Annex 2.3.1 (f)); U. S. INT'L TRADE COMM'N, HARMONIZED TARIFF SCHEDULE OF THE UNITED STATES (REV. 1) ch. 24 (2010)
16. (see Heading number 2402.20.80; Article description: cigarettes containing tobacco, other: paper wrapped; Rate of duty: general - $I.05/kg + 2.3%; Rate of duty: special - free), available at http://www.usitc.gov/publications/docs/tata/hts/bychapter/1001C24.pdf. For HTS8 classifications 24011021 to 24039990
17. Bollyky's summary recaptures the American Medical Association's findings from twenty-three years earlier, before the Doggett Amendment and E. O. 13193. Compare Memorandum from Thomas J. Bollyky on Forging a New Trade Policy on Tobacco, Council on Foreign Relations, Policy Innovation Memorandum No. 7, at 3 (Aug. 18, 2011) [hereinafter Bollyky Memo], available at http://www.cfr.org/ trade/forging-new-trade-policy-tobacco/p25658, with COUNCIL ON SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS, supra note 1, at 1-3.
18. Press Release, USTR, Remarks by Ambassador Ron Kirk at the Washington International Trade Association (Dec. 15, 2009), http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/ press-office/speeches/transcripts/2009/december/remarks-ambassador-ron-kirk- washington-inte.
19. Tobacco Fact Sheet No339, WORLD HEALTH ORG. (May 2012), http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/index.html#.
20. While endorsing zero tariffs for all products, the Office of the U. S. Trade Representative told Representative Doggett that it plans to comply with the Doggett Amendment. Ways and Means Members Press Marantis on Tobacco Treatment in TPP, INSIDE U. S. TRADE, Dec. 15, 2011.
21. see also World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Guidelines for Implementation of Article 5.3 of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, FCTC/COP3 (7) (2008) [hereinafter WHO FCTC Article 5.3 Guidelines], available at http://www.who.int/fctc/protocol/ guideIines/adopted/article-5-3/en/index.html (providing guidance on "the protection of public health policies with respect to tobacco control from commercial and other vested interests of the tobacco industry");
22. World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Guidelines for Implementation of Article 8 of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, FCTC/COP2 (7) (2007), available at http://www.who.int/fctc/ protocol/guidelines/adopted/article-8/en/index.html (providing guidance on "the protection from exposure to tobacco smoke");
23. World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Guidelines for Implementation of Article 11 of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, FCTC/COP3 (10) (2008)
24. [hereinafter WHO FCTC Article 11 Guidelines], available at http://www.who.int/fctc/protocol/guidelines/adopted/article-l 1/en/index.html (providing guidance on "packaging and labeling of tobacco products");
25. World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Guidelines for Implementation of Article 13 of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, FCTC/COP3 (12) (2008)
26. [hereinafter WHO FCTC Article 11 Guidelines], available at http://www.who.int/fctc/protocol/guidelines/adopted/article-13/en/index.html (providing guidance on "tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship");
27. Ruth Roemer, Allyn Taylor & Jean Lariviere, Origins of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 95 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 936, 936-38 (2005).
28. See generally Patrick B. Fazzone, The Trans-Pacific Partnership - Towards a Free Trade Agreement of Asia-Pacific?, 43 GEO. J. INT'L. L. 695, 734-43 (2012) (describing the TPP negotiations and stating that TPP will encourage free and open trade and investiment in the Asia-Pacific region).
29. Press Release, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, Joint Statement from Trans-Pacific Partnership Ministers Meeting on Margins of APEC in Big Sky, Montana (May 2011), http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/press-releases/ 2011/may/joint-statement-trans-pacificpartnership-ministers-me.
30. JEFFREY J. SCHOTT, BARBARA KOTSCHWAR & JULIA MUIR, UNDERSTANDING THE TRANS-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP 3 (2013).
31. Philip Morris Int'l, Submission of Philip Morris International in Response to the Request for Comments Concerning the Proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership Trade Agreement 1-2 (2010) [hereinafter PMI Submission], available at http://www.smoke-free.ca/trade-and-tobacco/Resources/TPPA/ PMI%20comments%20on%20TPP-USTR-2009-0041-0016.1%5B1%5D.pdf.
32. Draft Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, Investment Chapter (June 2012) [hereinafter Draft TPPA Investment Chapter], available at http://www. citizenstrade.org/ctc/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/tppinvestment.pdf;
33. Outlines of the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, OFFICE OF THE U. S. TRADE REPRESENTATIVE, http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/fact-sheets/ 2011/november/outlines-trans-pacific-partnership-agreement (last visited Mar. 2, 2013).
34. Notice of Arbitration, Philip Morris Asia Ltd. v. Commonwealth, ¶ 8.3 (Nov. 21, 2011)
35. [hereinafter Notice of Arbitration, PMA], available at http://www.ag.gov. au/Internationalrelations/InternationalLaw/Documents/ Philip%20Morris%20Asia%20Limited%20Notice%20of%20Arbitration %2021%20November%202011.pdf;
36. Request for Arbitration, FTR Holdings S. A. v. Uruguay, ICSID Case No. ARB/10/7 (Mar. 26, 2010)
37. [hereinafter Request for Arbitration, FTR], available at http://www.smoke-free.ca/eng-home/2010/PMIvsUruguay/PMI-Uruguay%20complaint0001. pdf.
38. 2004 Model Bilateral Investment Treaty art. 5.2, Office of the U. S Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/sites/default/frles/U. S.%20model%20BIT.pdf ("The concept... of 'fair and equitable treatment'... do[es] not require treatment in addition to or beyond that which is required by [customary international law], and do[es] not create additional substantive rights.");
39. see also, e.g., Agreement Establishing the ASEAN - Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area, ASEAN-Austl.-N. Z., ch. 11, art. 6 (2) (c), Feb. 27, 2009, Austl. Dep't of Foreign Affairs & Trade, http://www.dfat.gov. au/fta/aanzfta/chapters/chapterll.html#fr6
40. [hereinafter ASEAN-Austl.-N. Z. FTA] ("[T]he concepts of 'fair and equitable treatment' and ' full protection and security' do not require treatment in addition to or beyond that which is required under customary international law, and do not create additional substantive rights.").
41. R. R. Dev. Corp. v. Guatemala, ICSID Case No. ARB/07/23 80-91 (June 19, 2012).
42. See Charles H. Brower, Il, Why the FTC Notes of Interpretation Constitute a Partial Amendment of NAFTA Article 1105, 46 VA. J. INT'L L. 347, 358 n. 66 (2006) ("[T]o the extent that treaties codify existing custom, their content should influence the application of [FET provisions].... Alternatively, the widespread adoption of multilateral or bilateral treaties may reflect state practice sufficient to influence the development of custom....");
43. Moshe Hirsch, Sources of International Investment Law 26-27 (International Law Association Study Group on the Role of Soft Law Instruments in International Investment Law, Research Paper No. 05-11, 2011), available at http://papers.ssrn. com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=l 892564 ("An examination of decisions rendered by investment tribunals indicates that investment tribunals that pronounce various customary rules are inclined not to discuss the existence (or lack of) of the separate components of'practice' and 'opinion juris', and that they frequently rely on decisions of international courts and tribunals....");
44. Stephan W. Schill, The Sixteenth Treaty Forum Public Conference: Is There an Evolving Customary International Law on Investment?, From Sources to Discourse: Investment Treaty Jurisprudence as the New Custom?, 2 (May 6, 2011) ("Investment treaty tribunals... generate and implement a multilateral structure for international investment relations... not by reference to customary international law, but by referencing their own jurisprudence.").
45. See Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31 § 101 (b) (3), 123 Stat. 1776, 1796 (2009)
46. (codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387f). Section 906 (d) (1) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, as amended by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, provides: The Secretary may by regulation require restrictions on the sale and distribution of a tobacco product, including restrictions on the access to, and the advertising and promotion of, the tobacco product, if the Secretary determines that such regulation would be appropriate for the protection of the public health. The Secretary may by regulation impose restrictions on the advertising and promotion of a tobacco product consistent with and to the full extent permitted by the first amendment to the Constitution. The finding as to whether such regulation would be appropriate for the protection of the public health shall be determined with respect to the risks and benefits to the population as a whole, including users and nonusers of the tobacco product, and taking into account-(A) the increased or decreased likelihood that existing users of tobacco products will stop using such products; and (B) the increased or decreased likelihood that those who do not use tobacco products will start using such products." Id. (emphasis added).
47. See Eric Crosbie & Stanton A. Glantz, Tobacco Industry Argues Trademark Laws and International Treaties Preclude Cigarette Health Warning Labels, Despite Consistent Legal Advice that the Domestic Argument is Invalid, TOBACCO CONTROL (Nov. 24, 2012), http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/early/ 2012/ll/23/tobaccocontrol-2012-050569.full.html.
48. See Room Document from New Zealand to Working Party on Domestic Regulation, The Necessity Test in the Disciplines on Domestic Regulation, RD/SERV/39 (Feb. 9, 2011) [hereinafter N. Z., Necessity Test];
49. GARY CLYDE HUFBAUER ET AL., PETERSON INST. FOR ECON., POLICY BRIEF NO. 12-10, FRAMEWORK FOR THE INTERNATIONAL SERVICE AGREEMENT 43 (Apr. 2012);
50. Doug Palmer, U. S. Says to Negotiate Services Trade Pact with EU, Japan, Others, REUTERS, Jan. 15, 2013, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/ 2013/01/15/us-usa-trade-services-idUSBRE90E0TI2013 0115.
51. AUSTL. GOV'T DEP'T OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS & TRADE, GILLARD GOVERNMENT TRADE POLICY STATEMENT: TRADING OUR WAY TO MORE JOBS AND PROSPERITY 14 (Apr. 2011) ("The Government has not and will not accept provisions that limit its capacity to put health warnings or plain packaging requirements on tobacco products....").
52. See, e.g., Jane Kelsey, INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW AND TOBACCO CONTROL: TRADE AND INVESTMENT LAW ISSUES RELATING TO PROPOSED TOBACCO CONTROL POLICIES TO ACHIEVE AN EFFECTIVELY SMOKEFREE NEW ZEALAND BY 2025, 29-31 (2012);
53. Beatrice Lindstrom, Scaling Back TRIPS-Plus: An Analysis of Intellectual Property Provisions in Trade Agreements and Implications for Asia and the Pacific, 42 J. INT'L L. POL. 917 (2010);
54. Benn McGrady, TRIPS and Trademarks: The Case of Tobacco, 3 WORLD TRADE REV. 53, 68-69 (2004);
55. Andrew D. Mitchell, Australia's Move to the Plain Packaging of Cigarettes and Its WTO Compatibility, 5 ASIAN J. WTO INT'L HEALTH L. & POL'Y 405, 409-12;
56. Andrew D. Mitchell & Tania Voon, Patents and Public Health in the WTO, FTAs and Beyond: Tension and Conflict in International Law, 43 J. WORLD TRADE 571, 580-81 (2009);
57. Tania Voon, Flexibilities in WTO Law to Support Tobacco Control Regulation, 39 AM. J. L. & MED. 199, 213-17 (2013).
58. Press Release, Nat'l Foreign Trade Council, US Business Groups Issue Statement Expressing Deep Concern Following Announcement by the New Zealand Government of a Public Consultation to Review the Mandated Destruction of Trademarks and Branding in the Tobacco Sector (Apr. 20, 2012), http://www.nftc.org/newsflash/newsflash.asp?Mode=View&id=236&articleid= 3466&category=All.
59. New Initiative Aims to Expand Reach of Fight to Counteract EU on GIs, INSIDE U. S. TRADE, Mar. 30, 2012, at 10-11;
60. U. S., N. Z., Australia. Chile Work to Counter EU Initiative on GIs In TPP, INSIDE U. S. TRADE, Mar. 16, 2012, at 19. The Dominican Republic recently raised a similar argument during the TRIPS geographical indications (GI) negotiations that EU-type IP protections are necessary to allow it and other developing tobacco-producing nations the ability to exploit GIs like "Dominican Cigars", and that plain packaging laws stand in the way of this.
61. See Int'l Ctr. for Trade & Sustainable Dev., Australian Cigarette Packaging Law Hits a Nerve with Developing Countries, 15 BRIDGES WEEKLY TRADE NEWS DIGEST, June 15, 2011, available at http://ictsd.org/i/news/bridgesweekly/ 108710/.
62. Draft Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, Intellectual Property Chapter, art. 2 (22) (Feb. 10, 2011) [hereinafter Draft TPPA IP Chapter], available at http://keionline.org/sites/default/files/tpp-10feb2011-us-text-ipr-chapter.pdf. All tobacco companies have to do to use this type of protection is to make sure that not all of the tobacco actually originates from the place referenced in the product name. The full text reads: Art. 2:22 - Each Party shall permit the use, and as appropriate, shall provide for the registration, of signs or indications that identify services or products other than wines or spirits, and that reference a geographical area that is not the true place of origin of the services or of the product, provided that: (a) the sign or indication is used in a manner that does not mislead the public as to the geographical origin of the goods or services; (b) use of the sign or indication does not constitute an act of unfair competition within the meaning of Article 10bis of the Paris Convention (1967); (c) use of the sign or indication would not cause a likelihood of confusion with respect to an earlier-in-time similar or identical trademark or geographical indication that is used for identical or similar goods or services; and (d) where a request for registration is concerned, the sign or indication is not a generic term for the associated goods or services.
63. The dairy industry sees Article 2 (22) protections as an opportunity to block the EU's attempt to expand the WTO's TRIPS to protect products with place names as GIs. See BERNARD O'CONNOR, THE LAW OF GEOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS 50-51 (2006);
64. Daniele Giovannucci et al., INT'L TRADE CTR., GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS: LINKING PRODUCTS AND THEIR ORIGINS 16(2009), available at http://www.intracen.org/policy/geographical-indications/. Compare the proposed U. S. language with proposed language for the EU-ASEAN FTA, which provides for "legal provisions laying down that registered names... (b) is protected against:... any misuse, imitation or evocation, even if the true origin of the product is indicated or if the protected name is translated or accompanied by an expression such as 'style', 'type', 'method', 'as produced in', 'imitation' or 'similar.'"
65. Draft European Union-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement, Intellectual Property Chapter, art. 7 (6) (b) (2008) available at http://www.bilaterals.org/spip. php7articlel4281.
66. See Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1C, art. 15 (1);
67. see also THE LEGAL TEXTS: THE RESULTS OF THE URUGUAY ROUND OF MULTILATERAL TRADE NEGOTIATIONS 320 (1999)
68. 1869 U. N. T. S. 299
69. 33 I. L. M. 1197 (1994) (referring to "figurative elements and combinations of colours as well as any combination of such signs").
70. General Agreement on Trade in Services, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex I B, THE LEGAL TEXTS: THE RESULTS OF THE URUGUAY ROUND OF MULTILATERAL TRADE NEGOTIATIONS 284 (1999)
71. 1869 U. N. T. S. 183
72. 33 I. L. M. 1167 (1994) [hereinafter GATS];
73. Cross-border services is mode 1 in the GATS lexicon; the other three modes of supply covered under GATS are: (2) Consumption abroad; (3) Commercial presence; and (4) Presence of natural persons. GATS, supra note 46, at art. 1.2. Article 12.1.3 (a) of the United States-Korea FTA provides, "Articles 12.4 [Market Access], 12.7 [Domestic Regulation], and 12.8 [Transparency] shall also apply to measures adopted or maintained by a Party affecting the supply of a service in its territory by a covered investment." United States-Korea Free Trade Agreement, U. S.-Kor., ch. 12, art. 12.1.3 (a), effective Mar. 15, 2012, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/tradeagreements/ free-trade-agreements/korus-fta/final-text [hereinafter U. S.-Kor. FTA] (emphasis added). The U. S.-Korea approach expands upon the U. S.-Peru FTA, in which Article 11.14 (Definitions) defines "cross-border trade in services" as "the supply of a service: (a) from the territory of one Party into the territory of another Party; (b) in the territory of one Party by a person of that Party to a person of another Party; or (c) by a national of a Party in the territory of another Party;
74. but does not include the supply of a service in the territory of a Party by a covered investment." United States-Peru Free Trade Agreement, U. S.-Peru, ch.11, art. 11.14, Apr. 12, 2006, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/peru- tpa/final-text [hereinafter U. S.-Peru FTA] (emphasis added).
75. Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992 (Cth) ss 13-14, 16-17, 23 (Austl.) (prohibiting broadcast advertising, published advertising, and import of periodicals with tobacco advertising, and permits point of sale advertising to be governed by state law, including point of sale advertising on the Internet).
76. The United States argued that the restrictions were "on the character of the activity supplied, not as quantitative limits", but the panel rejected this argument. Panel Report, United States-Measures Affecting the Cross-border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, ¶ 6.328, WT/DS285/R (Apr. 30, 2004). The Appellate Body upheld the panel's reasoning: "[a prohibition on one, several or all means of delivery crossborder] is a 'limitation on the number of service suppliers in the form of numerical quotas' within the meaning of Article VI:2 (a) because it totally prevents the use by service suppliers of one, several or all means of delivery that are included in mode 1"
77. Appellate Body Report, United States-Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, ¶ 223, WT/DS285/AB/R (Apr. 20, 2005). A debate continues among analysts about whether prohibitions are qualitative rather than quantative limits on services.
78. See, e.g., Eric H. Leroux, Eleven Years of GATS Case Law: What Have We Learned?, 10 J. INT'L ECON. L. 749, 775 (2007);
79. Lode Van Den Hende & Herbert Smith, GATS Article XCI and National Regulatory Sovereignty: What Lessons to Draw From US-Gambling, in THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION AND TRADE IN SERVICES 461, 466 (Kern Alexander & Mads Andenas eds., 2008).
80. Services Database, WORLD TRADE ORG., http://tsdb.wto.org/default.aspx (last visited Mar. 3, 2013) (select "member" or "sector" from drop down menus to retrieve reports of which members have made commitments in a specific sector; results are presented as a summary table, with links to the text of the commitments; select 04. Distribution Services).
81. See, e.g., Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, Brunei-Chile-N. Z.-Sing.-Chile, art. 12.10.2 (b), July 18, 2005, N. Z. Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Tradeand-Economic-Relations/2- Trade-Relationships-and-Agreements/Trans-Pacific/index.php ("[E]ach party shall ensure that [an authorizing, licensing or qualification measure]... is not more burdensome than necessary to ensure the quality of the service") (emphasis added);
82. New Zealand-Malaysia Free Trade Agreement, N. Z.-Malay., § 8.18.2 (b), Oct. 26, 2009
83. N. Z. Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, http://www.mfat.govt.nz/ Trade-and-Economic-Relations/2-Trade-Relationships-and-Agreements/Malaysia/ index.php - text [hereinafter N. Z.-Malay. FTA];
84. N. Z. Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, http://www.asean. fta.govt.nz/preamble/[hereinafter ASEAN-Austl.-N. Z. FTA] (pertaining to domestic regulation and including necessity language that depends on the outcome of WTO negotiations).
85. See N. Z., Necessity Test, supra note 36;
86. Communication from Australia, Chile, Hong Kong, China, New Zealand and the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Kinmen and Matsu, Article VI:4 Disciplines - Proposal for Draft Text, JOB (06)/193 (June 19, 2006) (produced by the Working Party on Domestic Regulation, World Trade Organization).
87. See generally Robert Stumberg, Plain Language Guide: GATS Negotiations on Domestic Regulation (May 19, 2010) (unpublished paper), available at http://www.boell.org/downloads/Stumberg-Guide-to-GATS-Dom-Reg-5-19-10.pdf.
88. Communication from Brazil, Canada and the United States, Views on the Issue of the Necessity Test in the Disciplines on Domestic Regulation, ¶ 2, S/WPDR/W/44 (Mar. 22, 2011).
89. The schedule of GATS commitments for each TPP country is available through Services Database, WORLD TRADE ORG., http://tsdb.wto.org/ (last visited Mar. 18, 2013).
90. See, e.g., United States-Australia Free Trade Agreement, U. S.-Austl., art. 12.6, Annex II, Jan. 1, 2005, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-tradeagreements/australian-fta/ final-text [hereinafter U. S.-Austl. FTA] (discussing non-conforming measures in Article 12.6 and discussing the exclusion of tobacco distribution from Market Access prohibitions but not from tobacco advertising in Annex II, which is a schedule of Australia, Market Access).
91. See U. S.-Peru FTA, supra note 47, at art. 11.6.2, Annex II § 1 (addressing non-conforming measures in Article 11.6.2 and including Explanatory Notes in Annex II § 1).
92. Draft Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, Regulatory Coherence Chapter, art. X. 1.2.d (Mar. 4, 2010) [hereinafter Draft TPPA Regulatory Coherence Chapter].
93. Draft World Health Assembly Res. 54.18, World Health Organization, A54/52, Agenda item 13.5 ¶ 1 (May 21, 2001);
94. see also WORLD HEALTH ORG., TOBACCO INDUSTRY INTERFERENCE WITH TOBACCO CONTROL 2-3(2008), available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/ 9789241597340-eng.pdf.
95. See Jane Kelsey, The Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement: A Gold-Plated Gift to the Global Tobacco Industry?, 39 AM. J. L. & MED. 237, 246-52 (2013).
96. See, e.g., Imperial Tobacco N. Z. Ltd., Submission to the Commerce Select Committee on the Regulatory Standards Bill, ¶ 2.6 (2011);
97. Hillary Rodham Clinton, Sec'y of State 2-3 (Nov. 8, 2012) [hereinafter WHO letter to Clinton].
98. See, e.g., U. S.-Kor. FTA, supra note 47, arts. 9.3, 9.8, 9.10 (discussing "International Standards" in Article 9.3, "Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade" in Article 9.8, and "Definitions - Good regulatory practice" in Article 9.10).
99. WHO FCTC, supra note 16, at 9.
100. For each of these countries, see WORLD HEALTH ORG. FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON TOBACCO CONTROL, PARTIES' REPORTS, available at http://www.who.int/fctc/ reporting/party-reports/en/index.html (last visited Mar. 4, 2013).
101. Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31, sec. 101 (b) (3), §910, 123 Stat. 1776, 1807, 1810 (2009)
102. (codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387j) (discussing "Application for review of certain tobacco products" and the "Basis for finding").
103. Debbie Elliott, Cigarette Makers Frustrated as Product Approvals Stall, NAT'L PUB. RADIO (Jan. 11, 2013), http://www.npr.org/2013/01/ll/169158843/ cigarette-makers-frustrated-as-productapprovals-stall.
104. U. S. Backs Malaysian TPP Proposal Aiming to Protect Product Formulas, INSIDE U. S. TRADE, Jan. 9, 2013, at 31.
105. WTO Tariff Analysis Online, WORLD TRADE ORG., http://tariffdata.wto.org/ (last visited Mar. 9, 2013) (click "Next", select country of interest in the search box for "Reporters" and select "bound tariffs" when the menu expands, type in "tobacco" and click "find" in the "Products" search box, choose "240220 Cigarettes containing tobacco" product, click "Next", then download the document).
106. WORLD HEALTH ORG., WHO REPORT ON THE GLOBAL TOBACCO EPIDEMIC, 2011: VIET NAM 1, available at http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/policy/country- profile/vnm.pdf.
107. U. S. GEN. ACCOUNTING OFFICE, GAO/NSIAD-90-190, TRADE AND HEALTH ISSUES: DICHOTOMY BETWEEN U. S. TOBACCO EXPORT POLICY AND ANTISMOKING INITIATIVES 12 (1990). Targeting women has been particularly notable in Japan, where an industry-backed pledge against tobacco advertising to women replaced a government prohibition when the market was liberalized. Since then, the tobacco industry has introduced new brands and major advertising targeting women.
108. Kaori Hanjo & Ichiro Kawachi, Effects of Market Liberalization on Smoking in Japan, 9 TOBACCO Control 193, 193 (2000).
109. See MTD Equity Sdn. Bhd. v. Chile, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/7, Award, ¶ 104 (May 25, 2004). MFN is discussed further below. See infra text accompanying notes 152-54 (Threat of MFN claims).
110. WORLD HEALTH ORG., supra note 63, at 13.
111. Australia argues that PMI acquired its interest in Philip Morris Asia (PMA) to come within the jurisdiction of the Australia-Hong Kong bilateral investment treaty. Australia's Respose to the Notice of Arbitration, Philip Morris Asia Ltd. v Commonwealth, ¶ 30 (Dec. 21, 2011).
112. Luke Eric Peterson, UNCITRAL Tribunal Chaired by Christopher Greenwood Declines to Let Claimant Use MFN Clause to Detour Around Highly-Restrictive Arbitration Clause, INVESTMENT ARB. REP., Jan. 22, 2013, at 20.
113. World Lung Found., Legal Challenges and Litigation, TOBACCO ATLAS, http://www.tobaccoatlas.org/solutions/legal-litigation/text/ (last visited Apr. 11, 2013) (quoting Louis Camilleri, Chairperson and CEO, Philip Morris International).
114. Robert L. Rabin, A Sociological History of the Tobacco Tort Litigation, 44 STAN. L. REV. 853, 857 (1992);
115. see also Brief for Tobacco Control Legal Consortium and Tobacco Control Resource Center as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners, Engle v. Liggett Group, Inc., 945 So.2d 1246 (Fla. 2004) (No. SC03-1856), 2004 WL 1868929.
116. F. Rojid et al., No Coverage for Tobacco Industries with Regard to Tobacco-Control Measures-The Future of International Investment Agreements?, TRANSNAT'L DISPUTE MGMT., Nov. 2012, at 10 ("The cost of commencing a dispute goes even beyond that for host countries: whenever the outcome of arbitration is uncertain, States are much more likely to settle the claim, which would be at the expense of public policy because it would lead to 'regulatory chills' and the use of public funds to pay compensation. ").
117. See PHYSICIANS FOR A SMOKE-FREE CANADA, PACKAGING PHONEY INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CLAIMS 14(2009), available at http://www.smoke-free.ca/plain-packaging/ documents/2009/packagingphoneyipclaims-june2009-a4.pdf;
118. Internal Document, Souza Cruz, Tobacco Strategy Group, International Conference on Sales and Distribution (May 11, 1994), available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edU/documentStore/s/k/o/sko08a99/Ssko08a99.pdf (discussing "little joy" from GATT/TRIPS and stating that "current conventions & treaties offer little protection" for the industry).
119. Myron Levin, As Nations Try to Snuff Out Smoking, Cigarette Makers Use Trade Treaties to Fire Up Legal Challenges, FAIRWARNING (Nov. 29, 2012), http://www.fairwarning.org/2012/ll/asnations-try-to-snuff-out-smoking-cigarette- makers-use-trade-treaties-to-fire-up-legal-challenges/. In other sectors venture capital firms and investment banks that specialize in high-stakes international litigation are stepping up to finance investment disputes.
120. See ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPEREATION & DEV, INVESTOR-STATE DISPUTE SETTLEMENT, PUBLIC CONSULTATION: 16 May - 9 July 2012 37 (2012) [hereinafter OECD, Investor-State], available at http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/ internationalinvestmentagreements/50291642.pdf;
121. David Gaukrodger & Kathryn Gordon, Investor-State Dispute Settlement: A Scoping Paper for the Investment Policy Community, 36-43 (Org. for Econ. Co-opereation & Dev., Working Paper on International Investment, No. 2012/3, 2012), available at http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/WP-2012-3. pdf.
122. N. Z. MINISTRY OF HEALTH, REGULATORY IMPACT STATEMENT: PLAIN PACKAGING OF TOBACCO PRODUCTS 11 (Mar. 28, 2012), available at http://www.health.govt.nz/ system/files/documents/pages/regulatory-impact-statement-plain-packaging- tobacco-products.pdf.
123. OECD, INVESTOR-STATE, supra note 92, at 17.
124. Claudio Paolillo, Part III: Uruguay vs. Philip Morris: Tobacco Giant Wages Legal Fight Over South America's Toughest Smoking Controls, CTR. FOR PUB. INTEGRITY (Apr. 11, 2011, 10:39 AM), http://www.publicintegrity.org/2010/ll/15/ 4036/part-iii-uruguay-vs-philip-morris;
125. Press Release, Foley Hoag, Government of Uruguay Taps Foley Hoag for Representation in International Arbitration Brought by Philip Morris to Overturn Country's Tobacco Regulations (Oct. 8, 2010), http://www.foleyhoag.com/news- and-events/news/2010/october/uruguay-taps-foley-hoag-forrepresentation.
126. J. K. Ibrahim & Stanton A. Glantz, Tobacco Industry Litigation Strategies to Oppose Tobacco Control Media Campaigns, 15 TOBACCO CONTROL 50, 54(2006), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563618/.
127. This estimate is based on the MPOWER average for spending on tobacco control by middleincome countries: $.013 USD per capita. The World Bank classifies Peru as an upper-middle-income nation with a population of 29, 399, 817. Country and Lending Groups, THE WORLD BANK, http://data.worldbarik.org/ about/country-classifications/country-and-lendinggroups#Upper-middle-income (last visited Mar. 4, 2013);
128. Peru: Country at a Glance, THE WORLD BANK, http://www.worldbank.org/en/ country/peru (last visited Mar. 4, 20130). Estimated annual spending is 29, 399, 817x.013 = $382, 197, 621.
129. Vietnam. Country at a Glance, THE WORLD BANK, http://www.worldbank.org/ en/country/vietnam (last visited Mar. 4, 2013). Estimated annual spending is 87, 840, 000 x.013 = $1, 141, 920. In 2011, Vietnam reported spending considerably less, only $40, 000 USD using 2008 data.
130. WORLD HEALTH ORG., WHO REPORT ON THE GLOBAL TOBACCO EPIDEMIC, 2011: VIET NAM (2011), available at http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/policy/country- profile/vnm.pdf.
131. Dr. Margaret Chan, Dir. Gen. of the World Health Org., Keynote Address at the 15th World Conference on Tobacco or Health (Mar. 20, 2012), http://www.catcprc.org.cn/index.aspx? menuid=25&type= articleinfo&lanmuid=156&infoid=2837&language=en.
132. See, e.g., Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, Minutes of the Meeting of 15-16 June, 2011, ¶¶7 33-46, G/TBT/M/54 (Sept. 20, 2011) (statement of the WTO representative);
133. Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, WHO FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON TOBACCO CONTROL, http://www.who.int/fctc/signatories-parties/en/ index.html (last visited Feb. 11, 2013).
134. Members and Observers, World Trade Org., http://www.wto.org/english/ thewto-e/whatis-e/tif-e/org6-e.htm (last visited Apr. 17, 2013).
135. 15TH WORLD CONFERENCE ON TOBACCO OR HEALTH DECLARATION, WORLD CONFERENCE ON TOBACCO OR HEALTH 2012 (Mar. 20-24 2012) [hereinafter WCTOH Declaration], available at http://www.wctoh2012.org/nav-declaration.html (recommendation #3).
136. See, e.g., CTR. FOR POLICY ANALYSIS ON TRADE & HEALTH, CALL TO ACTION: FIX THE FATAL FLAWS IN U. S. TRADE POLICY ON TOBACCO (2012), available at http://www.cpath.org/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/ cpathfinalontppproposal5-6-12.pdf;
137. Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids Urges Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA) Negotiators to Exempt Tobacco from the Proposed Free Trade Agreement, CAMPAIGN FOR TOBACCO-FREE KIDS, http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/content/what-we- do/federal-issues/trade/TPP.pdf (last visited Apr. 12, 2013);
138. Letter from Bungon Ritthiphakdee, Dir., Se. Asia Tobacco Control Alliance, to President Barack Obama (Feb. 16, 2012), available at http://www.interaksyon. com/business/25134/advocatesurge-obama-take-tobacco-out- of-free-trade-talks.
139. See Letter from Nancy Brown, Chief Exec. Officer, Am. Heart Ass'n, Christopher W. Hansen, President, Am. Cancer Soc'y Cancer Action Network, Matthew L. Myers, President, Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, and Charles D. Connor, President & Chief Exec. Officer, Am. Lung Ass'n, to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (May 7, 2012), available at http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/content/what-we-do/federal-issues/trade/ 20120507-ngo-letter.pdf;
140. see also Letter from the Am. Acad, of Pediatrics, the Am. Acad, of Family Physicians, the Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, the Am. Coll. of Physicians, the Am. Coll. of Preventive Med., the Am. Med. Ass'n, the Ctr. for Policy Analysis on Trade & Health, to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (May 15, 2012), available at http://www.cpath. org/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/med-pub-health-tpp-tobacco-l6-may-2012. pdf;
141. Letter from Peter Goldstraw, President, Int'l Ass'n for the Study of Lung Cancer, to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (May 16, 2012), available at http://www.cpath.org/sitebuildercontent/ sitebuilderfiles/iaslctpp-letter.pdf;
142. Letter from Carolyn M. Dresler, Human Rights & Tobacco Control Network, to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (May 8, 2012), available at http://www.cpath.org/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/ hrtcn-tpplettertoustrmay2012.pdf;
143. Letter from Jeffrey B. Rich, The Soc'y of Thoracic Surgeons, to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (May 15, 2012), available at http://www.cpath.org/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/sts-letter-to-us- trade-representative-kirk.pdf.
144. Fact Sheet: TPP Tobacco Proposal, OFFICE OF THE U. S. TRADE REPRESENTATIVE, http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/fact-sheets/2012/may/ tpp-TOBACCO-proposal (last visited Mar. 5, 2013) [hereinafter TPP Tobacco Proposal].
145. see also J. Strawbridge, Cigarettes, TPP, and the Wisdom of Product-Specific Rules in Trade Deals, TRANSNAT'L DISPUTE MGMT., Nov. 2012, at 9.
146. Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties, art. 2 (d), May 23, 1969, 1155 U. N. T. S. 331. Article 19 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties governs formulation of reservations; Article 20 governs acceptance of and objection to reservations; Article 21 governs legal elects of reservations and of objections to reservations; Article 22 governs withdrawal of reservations and of objections to reservations; and Article 23 governs procedure regarding reservations. Id. arts. 19-23.
147. AUSTL. GOV'T PRODUCTIVITY COMM'N, BILATERAL AND REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS 271 (Nov. 2010);
148. see also Investor Rights to Sue Governments Hotly Debated at Trans-Pacific Trade Talks in Auckland, Austl. Fair Trade & Inv. Network Ltd., http://aftinet.org.au/cms/node/543 (last visited Mar. 5, 2013) ("[The PMI claim] has contributed to the Australian Government decision to refuse to have investor rights to sue applied to Australia in the TPPA.").
149. See PETER VAN DEN BOSSCHE, THE LAW AND POLICY OF THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION 617 (2d ed. 2008) ("Article XX is relevant and will be invoked by a Member only when a measure of that Member has been found to be inconsistent with another GATT provision. ");
150. see also ANDREW T. GUZMAN & JOOST H. B. PAUWELYN, INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW 339 (2009).
151. See PETER SUTHERLAND ET AL., CONSULTATIVE BD. TO THE DIR.-GEN. SUPACHAI PANITCHPAKDI, WORLD HEALTH ORG., THE FUTURE OF THE WTO: ADDRESSING INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM ¶ 44 (2004).
152. BENN MCGRADY, TRADE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 218-28 (2011);
153. Benn McGrady, Trade Liberalisation and Tobacco Control: Moving from a Policy of Exclusion Towards a More Comprehensive Policy, 16 TOBACCO CONTROL 280, 281 (2007).
154. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, art. XX (b), Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11
155. 55 U. N. T. S. 194 [hereinafter GATT];
156. WTO ANALYTICAL INDEX 318-19 (3d ed. 2012).
157. William W. Burke-White & Andreas Von Staden, Investment Protection in Extraordinary Times: The Interpretation and Application of Non-Precluded Measures Provisions in Bilateral Investment Treaties, 48 VA. J. INT'L L. 307, 327 (2008).
158. Josef Ostransky, How Can States Use Exceptions in Treaties to Defend Tobacco Control Legislation?, TRANSNAT'L DISPUTE MGMT., NOV. 2012, at 11 n. 6;
159. Prabash Ranjan, Non-Precluded Measures in Indian International Investment Agreements and India's Regulatory Power as a Host Nation, 2 ASIAN J. INT'L. L. 21, 34-35 n. 93 (2011);
160. see also, e.g., Canada-Uruguay Agreement for the Promotion and Protection of Investments, Can.-Uru., Annex I, Oct. 29, 1997, 1999 Can. T. S. No. 31;
161. Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement Between the Republic of India and the Republic of Singapore, India-Sing., art. 6(11), June 29, 2005, Dep't of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce & Indus., http://www.commerce.nic. in/ceca/toc.htm [hereinafter India-Sing. BIT].
162. See, e.g., Luke Engan, In Search of Necessity: Congruence, Proportionality and the Least-Restrictive Means in Investor-State Dispute Settlement, 43 GEO. J. INT'L L. 495 (2012);
163. Andrew Newcombe, General Exceptions in International Investment Agreements, in 30 GLOBAL TRADE LAW SERIES: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN WORLD INVESTMENT LAW 351, 363 (Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger et al. eds, 2011) (exceptions in IIA);
164. see also Continental Casual Co. v. Argentina, ICSID Case No. ARB/03/9 (Sept. 5, 2008).
165. See ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT PERSPECTIVES 165-66 (OECD Publishing, 2006);
166. José Alvarez & Tegan Brink, Revisiting the Necessity Defence: Continental Casualty v. Argentina 23 (Int'l Law & Justice, Working paper 2010/3, 2010).
167. See generally Jean Galbraith, Treaty Options: Towards a Behavioral Understanding of Treaty Design, Va. J. INT'L. L. (forthcoming 2013).
168. See Agreement between the Swiss Federal Council and the Government of the United Arab Emirates on the Promotion and Reciprocal Protection of Investments, Switz.-U. A. E., art. 11(4), Mar. 11, 1998, SR-Nr. 0.975.232.5, available at http://www.admin. ch/ch/f7rs/c0-975-232-5.html ("Nothing in this agreement shall be construed to prevent a Contracting Party from taking any action necessary for reasons of public security and order, public health or morality.").
169. Chile-Malaysia Free Trade Agreement, Chile-Malay., art. 13.1 (entered into force 18 April 2012);
170. Chile-Australia FTA, Chile-Austl., art. 22.1, Nov. 13, 2010, Ministry oflnt'l Trade & Indus., http://www.miti.gov. my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms. cms.document. Document-62ac20fc-c0a8157 3-44934493-bf60f59a/MCFTA- consolidated%20text-full.pdf;
171. Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement, Can.-Chile, art. 0-01, Dec. 5, 1996, Foreign Affairs & Int'l Trade Can., http://www.international.gc.ca/trade- agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/chilechili/menu.aspx?lang=en&view=d.
172. For GATT art. XX (b), see, for example, Appellate Body Report, Brazil-Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R (Dec. 3, 2007) [hereinafter ABR, Brazil-Tyres]. For GATS art. XIV
173. see, for example, Appellate Body Report, China-Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, WT/DS363/AB/R (Dec. 21, 2009) [hereinafter ABR, China-AV Products].
174. Agreement Between the Government of Hong-Kong and the Government of Australia for the Promotion and Protection of Investments, H. K.-Austl., art. 2.2, Sept. 15, 1993, Dep't of Justice, http://www.legislation. gov. hk/eng/index.htm ("Each Contracting Party shall observe any obligation it may have entered into with regard to investments of investors of the other Contracting Party.") (emphasis added).
175. See United Nations Conference in Trade and Development, UNCTAD Series on International Investment Agreement II, Most-Favored Nation Treatment, 114 UNCTAD/DIAE/IA/2010/1 (2010) ("MFN clauses permitting treaty shopping can raise numerous fundamental policy and legal issues.").
176. Yas Banifatemi, The Emerging Jurisprudence on the Most-Favored-Nation Treatment in Investment Arbitration, in INVESTMENT TREATY LAW: CURRENT ISSUES III 241, 242 (Andrea K. Bjorklund et al. eds., 2009).
177. MTD Equity Sdn. Bhd. v. Republic of Chile, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/7, Award, ¶ 104 (May 25, 2004).
178. See, e.g., Asian Agric. Products Ltd. v. Sri Lanka, ICSID Case No. ARB/87/3, Final Award (June 27, 1990);
179. ADF Grp. Inc v. United States, ICSID Case No ARB (AF)/00/l, Award, ¶¶ 194-95 (Jan. 9, 2003).
180. Societe Générale v. Dominican Republic, LCIA Case No. UN 7927, Award on Preliminary Objections to Jurisdiction, ¶ 41 (Sept. 19, 2008);
181. Tecnicas Medioambientales Teemed S. A. v. United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB (AF)/00/2, Award, ¶69 (May 29, 2003);
182. M. C. I. Power Grp. L. C. v. Republic of Ecuador, ICSID Case No ARB/03/6, Decision on Annulment, ¶ 128 (Oct. 19, 2009);
183. Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Case (U. K. v. Iran), 1952 I. C. J. 93, 109 (July 22) (stating that jurisdiction is based on consent to arbitration).
184. But see ANDREW NEWCOMBE & LLUIS PARADELL, LAW AND PRACTICE OF INVESTMENT TREATIES 222 (2009) ("[I]t is arguable that an MFN clause that applies to all matters in the treaty could be applied to establish the intention of the parties to confer better temporal protection. ").
185. See CMS Gas Transmission Co. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/8, Award, ¶ 337 (May 12, 2005) (stating that an absence of clause in prior agreements is not a basis for MFN treatment).
186. See generally RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW § 801 (1987);
187. Draft Articles on Most-Favoured-Nation Clauses, 2 Y. B. INT'L L. COMM'N (U. N.) 16, 53 (1978) ("A mostfavoured-nation clause, unless otherwise agreed, obviously attracts benefits extended to a third State both before and after the entry into force of the treaty containing the clause").
188. See, e.g.. Agreement Between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Republic of Chile for the Promotion and Protection of Investments with Protocol, Jan. 8, 1996, U. K-N. Ir.-Chile, art. 2, [1997] GR. BRIT. T. S NO. 37 (1997) (international law clause);
189. Agreement Between the Belgo-Luxemburg Economic Union and the Government of Malaysia on Encouragement and Reciprocal Protection of Investments, Belg.-Lux-Malay., art. 3, Nov. 22, 1979, 1284 U. N. T. S. 121 (international law clause);
190. Agreement Between the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Government of Malaysia for the Mutual Promotion and Protection of Investments, Den.-Malay., art. 3, Jan. 6, 1992, IC-BT 886 (umbrella clause);
191. Agreement Between the Government of Hong Kong and the Government of New Zealand for the Promotion and Protection of Investments, H. K.-N. Z., art. 3, July 6, 1995, U. N. Conference on Trade & Dev., http://www.unctadxi.org/ templates/DocSearch.aspx?id=779 [hereinafter N. Z.-H. K. BIT] (umbrella clause);
192. Agreement on the Promotion and Protection of Investments, N. Z.-China, art. 3, Nov. 22, 1988, 1787 U. N. T. S. 186 [hereinafter N. Z.-China BIT] (umbrella clause);
193. Agreement on Economic Cooperation Between the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Government of the Republic of Singapore, Neth.-Sing., art. VII, May 16, 1972, U. N. Conference on Trade & Dev., http://www.unctadxi.org/templates/DocSearch.aspx?id=779 (international law clause);
194. Agreement Between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Singapore on the Promotion and Protection of Investments, China-Sing., art. 3, Nov. 11, 1985, U. N. Conference on Trade & Dev., http://www.unctadxi.org/templates/DocSearch.aspx?id=779 (umbrella clause);
195. Treaty Between United States of America and the Argentine Republic Concerning the Reciprocal Encouragement and Protection of Investment, U. S.-Arg., art. II, Nov. 14, 1991, T. I. A. S. (international law clause);
196. Treaty Between the United States of America and the Republic of Ecuador Concerning the Encouragement and Reciprocal Protection of Investment, U. S.-Ecuador, art. II, Aug. 27, 1993, SEN. TREATYDOC. No. 103-15 (umbrella clause).
197. "In the event of conflict between a provision of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 and a provision of another agreement in Annex 1A... the other agreement shall prevail to the extent of the conflict." General Interpretive Note to Annex 1A, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1 A, 1867 U. N. T. S. 154.
198. Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, supra note 107.
199. See Deborah Sy, Warning: Investment Agreements Are Dangerous to Your Health, 43 GEO. WASH. INT'L L. REV. 625, 652-55 (2011)
200. see also Sam Foster Halabi, The World Health Organization's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: An Analysis of Guidelines Adopted by the Conference of the Parties, 39 GA. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 121, 132 (2010).
201. see Gabrielle Marceau, Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdiction: The Relationship Between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and Other Treaties, 35 J. WORLD TRADE 1081, 1084-85, 1129 (2001);
202. see also Chuan-feng Wu, State Responsibility for Tobacco Control: The Right to Health Perspective, 3 ASIAN J. WTO & INT'L HEALTH L. & POL'Y 379, 385-86 (2008).
203. (citing Appellate Body Report, Guatemala-Anti-Dumping Investigation Regarding Portland Cement from Mexico, ¶ 65, WT/DS60/AB/R (Nov. 25, 1998);
204. Panel Report, Indonesia-Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile Industry, ¶¶ 14.29-14.36, 14-97-14.99, WT/DS54, WT/DS5455, WT/DS5459, WT/DS5464/R, (July 23, 1998)).
205. (citing Panel Report, European Communities-Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas, ¶7.159, WT/DS27/R (US) (May 22, 1997)).
206. See JOOST PAUWELYN, CONFLICT OF NORMS IN PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW: HOW WTO LAW RELATES TO OTHER RULES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 166-169, 179 (2003);
207. MCGRADY, TRADE AND PUBLIC HEALTH, supra note 124, at 235-42, 246
208. See, e.g., Catherine Saez, Plain Packaging For Tobacco Raises IPR Questions At WTO, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY WATCH (June 16, 2011), http://www.ip-watch.org/2011/06/16/plain-packagingfor-tobacco-puts-wto-members- in-a-quandary
209. (quoting a King and Spaulding Report for British American Tobacco); Manifestation and Compliance of Respondent Mighty Corp. ¶¶ 42-51, Dep't of Health et al. v. Honorable Judge Alexander P. Tamayo et al., G. R. No. 193414 (S. C., May 16, 2011) (arguing that the FCTC is "hortatory" and "merely permissive").
210. WTO Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, Minutes of the Meeting of 10-11 November 2011, ¶¶ 204-205, G/TBT/M/55 (Feb. 9, 2012) (statements of Cuba)
211. See Jonathan Liberman, Four COPs and Counting: Achievements, Underachievements and Looming Challenges in the Early Life of the WHO FCTC Conference of the Parties, TOBACCO CONTROL (Sept. 14, 2011), http://tobaccocontrol.bmj\com/content/21/2/215.full.pdf+htnil?sid= fff0952f-4f88-423c-8880-903fc7656d24.
212. WHO FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON TOBACCO CONTROL, GUIDELINES FOR IMPLEMENTATION 92-99 (2011)
213. [hereinafter FCTC Guidelines], available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ publications/201 l/9789241501316-eng.pdf.
214. See MCGRADY, TRADE AND PUBLIC HEALTH, supra note 124, at 235-42;
215. R. Hammond & M. Assunta, The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: Promising Start, Uncertain future, 12 TOBACCO CONTROL 241 (2003).
216. See MCGRADY, TRADE AND PUBLIC HEALTH, supra note 124, at 245-46
217. See Panel Report, United States-Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, ¶ 7.414, WT/DS406/R (Sept. 2, 2011)
218. [hereinafter Panel Report, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes].
219. See Benn McGrady & Alexandra Jones, Tobacco Control and Beyond: The Broader Implications of United States-Clove Cigarettes/jr Non-Communicable Diseases, 39 AM. J. L. & MED. 265 (2013).
220. Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, art. 2.1, 1868 U. N. T. S. 120
221. [hereinafter TBT Agreement].
222. Panel Report, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 177, ¶¶ 7.209-.210.
223. Appellate Body Report, United States-Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, ¶ 149, WT/DS406/AB/R (Apr. 4, 2012)
224. [hereinafter ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes].
225. Lukasz Gruszczynski, The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control as an International Standard under the TBT Agreement?, TRANSNAT'L DISPUTE MGMT., Nov. 2012, at 5
226. See Burke-White & Von Staden, supra note 126, at 361-63 (stating that investment arbitrators may defer less when they can draw their own conclusions from scientific evidence). On an issue such as justifiable discrimination, Article 2 (1) of the FCTC could be cited by either side of an argument about conflict between a trade agreement and the FCTC. It provides that "nothing in these instruments shall prevent a Party from imposing stricter requirements that are consistent with their provisions and are in accordance with international law." WHO FCTC, supra note 16, at art. 2 (1) (emphasis added).
227. See ADF Group Inc. v. United States, ICSID Case No. ARB (AF)/00/l, Award, ¶ 194 (Jan. 9, 2003).
228. Ellery C. Stowell, INTERNATIONAL LAW: A RESTATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES IN CONFORMITY WITH ACTUAL PRACTICE xv, 31 (Treaties as a Source of International Law) (1931);
229. accord A. D'Amato, TREATY-BASED RULES OF CUSTOM, IN INTERNATIONAL Law ANTHOLOGY 94, 100 (A. D'Amato ed., 1994);
230. Benjamin Mason Meier, Breathing Life into the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: Smoking Cessation and the Right to Health, 5 YALE J. HEALTH POL'YL.& ETHICS 137, 192 (2005).
231. See Dapo Akande & Sope Williams, International Adjudication on National Security Issues: What Role for the WTO?, 43 VA. J. INT'L L. 365, 374 (2003).
232. U. S.-Korea FTA, supra note 47, at art. 23.2 n. 2
233. See WHO FCTC, supra note 16, at art. 3.
234. See MCGRADY, TRADE ABD PUBLIC HEALTH, supra note 124, at 2, 14-15;
235. Benn McGrady, Necessity Exceptions in WTO Law: Retreaded Tyres, Regulatory Purpose and Cumulative Regulatory Measures, 12 J. INT'L. ECON. L. 153 (2009).
236. See ABR, China-AV Products, supra note 144, ¶ 230.
237. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 178.
238. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 151.
239. Appellate Body Report, United Slates-Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, ¶ 292, WT/DS285/AB/R (Apr. 7, 2005)
240. [hereinafter ABR, U. S.-Gambling].
241. Id. In the pre-WTO era, a GATT dispute panel opined that Thailand's ban on cigarette advertising and marketing could be defended under the health exception. Panel Report, Thailand-Restrictions on the Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes, ¶ 78, DS10/R-37S/200 (Nov. 7, 1990)
242. [hereinafter Panel Report, Thailand-Cigarettes].
243. ABR, China-AV Products, supra note 144;
244. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144;
245. ABR, U. S.-Gambling, supra note 200;
246. Appellate Body Report, European Communities-Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbetos-Containing Products, ¶ 171, WT/DS135/AB/R (Mar. 12, 2001).
247. See Panel Report, United States-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 177, ¶ 7.422
248. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 156;
249. Panel Report, Dominican Republic-Measures Affecting the Importation and Internal Sale of Cigarettes, ¶ 7.22, WT/DS302/R (May 19, 2005)
250. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 214.
251. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 133-212.
252. Appellate Body Report, Korea-Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef, ¶ 161, WT/DS161/AB/R, WT/DS169/AB/R (Jan. 10, 2001).
253. ABR, U. S.-Gambling, supra note 200, ¶ 124;
254. see also Appellate Body Report, United States-Measures Concerning the Importation, Marketing and Sale of Tuna and Tuna Products, ¶ 2, WT/DS381/AB/R (May 16, 2012).
255. Appellate Body Report, United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, 13-14, WT/DS2/AB/R (Apr. 29, 1996)
256. [hereinafter ABR, U. S.-Gasoline].
257. Appellate Body Report, Australia-Measures Affecting Importation of Salmon, ¶¶ 93, 101-05, WT/DS18/AB/R (Oct. 20, 1998).
258. Panel Report, China-Measure Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, ¶¶ 7.814-7.868, WT/DS363/R (Aug. 12, 2009);
259. ABR, China-AV Products, supra note 144, ¶¶ 244, 248-249.
260. See, e.g., Kenneth E. Warner, The Effects of the Anti-Smoking Campaign on Cigarette Consumption, 67 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 645, 649 (1977).
261. Winston Abascal et al., Tobacco Control Campaign in Uruguay, 380 LANCET 1575, 1575 (2012);
262. see Lois Biener, Jeffrey E. Harris & William Hamilton, Impact of the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Programme, 321 BRIT. MED. J. 351, 351 (2000);
263. see also ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 154.
264. see ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 154.
265. WHO FCTC, supra note 16, at art. 3.
266. See RONALD D. ROTUNDA & JOHN E. NOWAK, 2 NOWAK AND ROTUNDA'S TREATISE ON CONSTITUTIONAL LAW-SUBSTANCE AND PROCEDURE § 15.4 (a), § 18.2 (a) (5th ed. 2012);
267. see also EUGENE MCQUILLIN, 6A THE LAW OF MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS § 24:29 (3d ed. 2012).
268. See Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly, 533 U. S. 525, 581 (2001);
269. RONALD D. ROTUNDA & JOHN E. NOWAK, 5 NOWAK AND ROTUNDA'S TREATISE ON CONSTITUTIONAL LAW-SUBSTANCE AND PROCEDURE § 20.31 (b) (iii) (4) (vni) (4th ed. 2012).
270. For Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
271. E.g., Agreement between the Swiss Confederation and the Oriental Republic of Uruguay on the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments, Switz.-Uru., art. 2(1), July 10, 1988, 575 U. N. T. S. 159.
272. E.g., N. Z.-H. K. BIT, supra note 156, at art. 8 (3);
273. U. S.-Austl. FTA, supra note 57, at Annex 11-B;
274. N. Z.-China BIT, supra note 156, at art. 11;
275. Accord Entre L'Union Economique Belgo-Luxembourgeoise et les Etats-Unis du Mexique Concernant L'Encouragement et la Protection Reciproques des Investissements, Belg.-Lux.-Mex., art. 3(2), Aug. 27, 1998, Council of State, http://reflex.raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdl7Mbbs/traiverd%5C4829.pdf ("destinees a").
276. See, e.g., Agreement Between Japan and the Republic of Singapore for a New-Age Economic Partnership, Japan-Sing., art. 19, Jan. 13, 2002, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/singapore/ jsepa.html;
277. India-Sing. BIT, supra note 127, at art. 6.
278. "Relate, adj - Related, connected." Relate Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
279. Appellate Body Report, United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, ¶¶ 135-142, WT/DS59/AB/R (Oct. 12, 1998)
280. [hereinafter ABR, U. S.-Shrimp] (whether the measure was primarily aimed at its objective);
281. see also WORLD TRADE ORG., WTO E-LEARNING: THE WTO MULTILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS 346(2010), available at https://etraining.wto.org/admin/files/Course- 234/CourseContents/eWTO-E-R3-Print.pdf;
282. MICHAEL J. TREBILCOCK & ROBERT HOWSE, THE REGULATION OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE 532 (3d ed. 2005).
283. FCTC Guidelines interpreting Article 6 recognize that a tax measure can serve dual purposes. See Fourth Session of the Conference of the Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Punta del Este, Uru., Nov. 15-20, 2010, Framework Convention Alliance, Guidelines for FCTC Article 6 (Price and Tax Measures to Reduce the Demand for Tobacco) - What Finance Ministries Need to Know, available at http://www.fctc.org/images/stories/Art%206%20briefing% 20finance%20mini stries.pdf.
284. ABR, U. S.-Shrimp, supra note 234, ¶¶ 118-19, 160;
285. ABR, U. S.-Gasoline, supra note 214, at 22.
286. ABR, U. S.-Gasoline, supra note 214 (reviewing the drafting history of Article XX);
287. see also ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶ 109 (discussing the balance stricken by the preamble of the TBT Agreement which includes similar recognition of rights to regulate);
288. ABR, U. S.-Shrimp, supra note 234, ¶¶ 158-59;
289. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 215;
290. ABR, U. S.-Gambling, supra note 200, ¶ 339.
291. ABR, U. S.-Gasoline, supra note 214, at 22-23.
292. ABR, U. S.-Gambling, supra note 200, ¶ 367-69.
293. ABR, China-AV Products, supra note 144, ¶ 237-38.
294. Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31, sec. 101 (b) (3), § 907 (a) (1) (A), 123 Stat. 1776, 1799 (2009)
295. (to be codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387g);
296. H. R. REP. No. 111-58, pt. 1, at 2, 37, 77 (2009).
297. See ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶¶ 181-182.
298. Simon Lester, Free Trade and Tobacco: Thank You for Not Smoking (Foreign) Cigarettes, CATO FREE TRADE BULLETIN, August 15, 2012, at 1, 6, available at http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdCFTB-049.pdf.
299. ABR, U. S.-Gasoline, supra note 214, at 28.
300. An Act to Amend the Tobacco Act, S. C. 2009, c. 27 (Can.). Canada's flavoring ban has been discussed in the WTO's TBT committee, but no country as requested a dispute panel yet. World Trade Org. Comm. on Technical Barriers to Trade, Minutes of the Meeting of 23-24 June 2010, ¶¶ 181-26, G/TBT/M/51 (Oct. 1, 2010).
301. Statements by the United States at the April 24, 2012, DSB Meeting, MISSION OF THE U. S.: GENEVA, SWITZ., http://geneva.usmission. gov/2012/04/25/statements-by-the-united-states-at-theapril-24-2012-dsb-meeting (last visited Mar. 18, 2013).
302. Panel Report, Brazil-Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, ¶ 7.330, WT/DS332/R (June 12, 2007)
303. [hereinafter Panel Report, Brazil-Tyres].
304. See ABR, U. S.-Shrimp, supra note 234, ¶ 158;
305. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 215.
306. The Panel considered the amounts of retreaded tyres that Brazil exempted from the import ban because significant amounts "would have the potential to undermine the achievement of the stated objective", therefore constituting a disguised restriction. Panel Report, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 251, ¶ 7.353.
307. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 239.
308. H. R. REP. No. 111-58, pt. 1, at 39 (2009).
309. See Todd Tucker, 'One of These Things Is Not Like the Other': Likeness and Detrimental Impacts in US-Clove Cigarettes, TRANSNAT'L DISPUTE MGMT., NOV. 2012, at 3, 8.
310. TPP Tobacco Proposal, supra note 112.
311. TPP Tobacco Proposal, supra note 112.
312. Letter from Bill Brock, Mickey Kantor, Susan Schwab, and Clayton Yeutter to Ron Kirk, Ambassador, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative (June 22, 2012);
313. Critics of Draft U. S. Tobacco Proposalin TPP Poised to Renew Efforts, INSIDE U. S. TRADE, Feb. 1, 2013, at 1.
314. ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶¶ 86-87.
315. Request for the Establishment of a Panel by Ukraine, Australia-Certain Measures Concerning Trademarks and Other Plain Packaging Requirements Applicable to Tobacco Products and Packaging, WT/DS434/11 (Aug. 17, 2012)
316. Request for the Establishment of a Panel by Honduras, Australia-Certain Measures Concerning Trademarks, Geographical Indications and Other Plain Packaging Requirements Applicable to Tobacco Products and Packaging, WT/DS435/16 (Oct. 17, 2012)
317. ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶¶ 181-82.
318. Author's Notes, USTR Briefings, supra note 262; see also Benn McGrady, Clarification of US Proposal on Tobacco in the TPP, TRADE, INV. & HEALTH (May 22, 2012), http://www.oneillinstitutetradeblog.org/clarification-of-us- proposal-on-tobacco-in-the-tpp/;
319. Benn McGrady, Update on Tobacco in the Trans-Pacific Partnership, TRADE, INV. & HEALTH (May 21, 2012), http://www.oneillinstitutetradeblog.org/ update-on-tobacco-in-the-trans-pacific-partnership/;
320. Benn McGrady, US Proposal on Tobacco in Trans-Pacific Partnership, TRADE, INV. & HEALTH (May 18, 2012), http://www.oneillinstitutetradeblog.org/us- proposal-on-tobacco-in-trans-pacificpartnership
321. [hereinafter McGrady, US Proposal].
322. Draft TPPA Investment Chapter, supra note 21, at art. 12.28;
323. see also U. S.-Kor. FTA, supra note 47, at arts. 11.26, 22.13.
324. See generally JOHN H. JACKSON, SOVEREIGNTY, The WTO AND CHANGING FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ch. 5 (2006).
325. "Preclude - 2. Shut out, exclude; prevent, frustrate; make impossible. 3. Esp. of a situation or condition: prevent (a person) from an action or (from) doing something." Preclude Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
326. See, e.g., ASEAN-Austl.-N. Z. FTA, supra note 29, at art. 15 (1) (2).
327. TPP Tobacco Proposal, supra note 112.
328. See Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31, sec. 101 (b) (3), § 906 (d) (1), 123 Stat. 1776, 1796 (2009)
329. (to be codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387f).
330. See, e.g.. TOBACCO CONTROL LEGAL CONSORTIUM, FACT SHEET 2: EXPANSION OF STATE AND LOCAL AUTHORITY (2009), available at http://www.publichealthlawcenter. org/sites/default/files/fda-2.pdf;
331. TOBACCO CONTROL LEGAL CONSORTIUM, FACT SHEET 4: UNCHANGED STATE AND LOCAL AUTHORITY (2009), available at http://www.publichealthlawcenter.org/sites/ default/files/fda-4.pdf;
332. TOBACCO CONTROL LEGAL CONSORTIUM, FACT SHEET 6: STATE AND LOCAL AUTHORITY TO ESTABLISH TOBACCO PRODUCT STANDARDS (2009), available at http://www.publichealthlawcenter.org/sites/default/files/fda-6.pdf;
333. Michael Freiberg, Options for State and Local Governments to Regulate Non-Cigarette Tobacco Products, 21 ANNALS HEALTH L. 407(2012), available at http://www.publichealthlawcenter.org/sites/default/files/resources/ phlc-lreviewfreiberg-regulating-otp-2012.pdf;
334. Firesafe Cigarettes, PUB. HEALTH L. CENTER, http://www. publichealthlawcenter.org/topics/tobacco-control/product-regulation/ firesafe-cigarettes (last visited Feb. 25, 2013).
335. Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31, sec. 101 (b) (3), § 907, 123 Stat. 1776, 1799 (2009)
336. (to be codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387g);
337. ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶¶ 1-4, 298.
338. CHANGELAB SOLUTIONS, TOBACCO LAWS AFFECTING CALIFORNIA 7(2012), available at http://changelabsolutions.org/sites/default/files/documents/2012- CALawsBooklet-FINAL-20120515.pdf.
339. See, e.g., Draft TPPA Investment Chapter, supra note 21, at art. 12.3;
340. U. S.-Peru FTA, supra note 47, art. 11.1.
341. See, e.g., Sinclair Collis Ltd., Petitioners, for Judicial Review of the Tobacco and Primary Health Servces (Scotland) Act 2010, [2011] CSOH 80, available at http://www.scotcourts.gov. uk/opinions/201 lCSOH80.html.
342. See Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act § 906 (d) (1).
343. See Clifton Williams, Expressio Unius Est Exclusio Alterius, 15 MARQUETTE L. REV. 191, 193 (1931);
344. see also Karl N. Llewellyn, Remarks on the Theory of Appellate Decision and the Rules of Canons About How Statutes Are to be Construed, 3 VAND. L. REV. 395, 405 (1950).
345. WHO FCTC, supra note 16, art. 1
346. TPP Tobacco Proposal, supra note 112.
347. First Written Submission of the United States, United States-Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, ¶¶ 199-201, DS406 (Nov. 16, 2010)
348. [hereinafter First Written Submission, U. S.-Clove], available at http://www.ustr.gov/webfm-send/2396.
349. TPP Tooacco Proposal, supra note 112.
350. See Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, Pub. L. No. 111-31, sec. 101 (b) (3), § 906 (d) (1), 123 Stat. 1776, 1796 (2009)
351. (to be codified as amended at 21 U. S. C. § 387f).
352. GATT, supra 125, at art. 111 (4) (emphasis added).
353. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶¶ 9-10.
354. ABR, China-AV Products, supra note 144, ¶¶ 250-254.
355. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶ 154, 210.
356. ABR, Brazil-Tyres, supra note 144, ¶¶ 150-155, 172
357. Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Apr. 15, 1994, 1867 U. N. T. S. 493
358. [hereinafter SPS Agreement].
359. See also Appellate Body Report, EC-Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), ¶ 193, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan. 16, 1998)
360. [hereinafter ABR, EC-Hormones];
361. Appellate Body Report, Japan-Measures Affecting Agricultural Products, WT/DS76/AB/R, ¶¶ 74-75, (Feb. 22, 1999)
362. [hereinafter ABR, Japan-Agricultural];
363. Appellate Body Report, Australia-Measures Affecting the Importation of Salmon, WT/DS18/AB/R, ¶¶ 119-123, (Oct. 20, 1998)
364. [hereinafter ABR, Australia-Salmon]
365. ABR, EC-Meat, supra note 313, ¶ 193.
366. see also ABR, Japan-Agricultural, supra note 313, ¶¶ 74-75;
367. ABR, Australia-Salmon, supra note 313, ¶ 126.
368. ABR, U. S.-Clove Cigarettes, supra note 181, ¶ 149.
369. PMI Submission, supra note 20.
370. See ACTION ON SMOKING AND HEALTH (ASH) AUSTRALIA, COUNTERING TOBACCO TACTICS 9 (2010);
371. ASH Austl., Tobacco-Free University Campuses in Australia: Progress and Best Practices (2009), available at www.ashaust.org.au/lv4/UniSurveySuramary09. doc;
372. Yussuf Saloojee & Elif Dagli, Tobacco Industry Tactics for Resisting Public Policy on Health, 78 BULL. WORLD HEALTH ORG. 902, 904 (2000);
373. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, supra note 63, 10-11;
374. Lisa Bero et al., Lawyer Control of the Tobacco Industry's External Research Program, 274 JAMA 241, 247 (1995)
375. See DELOITTE, TOBACCO PACKAGING REGULATION - AN INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE INTENDED AND UNINTENDED IMPACTS (2011);
376. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, supra note 63, at 17
377. (quoting M. Scollo et al., Review of the Quality of Studies on the Economic Effects of Smoke-Free Policies on the Hospitality Industry, 12 TOBACCO CONTROL 13-20 (2003)).
378. See Plain Packaging of Tobacco Products, BRITISH AMERICAN TOBACCO, http://www.bat.com/group/sites/uk-3mnfen. nsf/vwPagesWebLive/D07J7DCZ? opendocument&KN=l (last visited April 10, 2013);
379. see also Illicit Trade, PLAIN PACKAGING OF TOBACCO PRODUCTS, http://www.plain-packaging.com/Templates/Blank-IllicitTrade.aspx (last visited May 22, 2012).
380. For example, in the WTO's Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, Colombia asserted that in the wake of more stringent packaging regulations, "it had not been scientifically proven that these labels directly induced a drop in consumption of tobacco." World Trade Org. Comm. on Technical Barriers to Trade, Minutes of the Meeting of 15-16 June 2011, ¶ 11, G/TBT/M/54 (Sept. 20, 2011).
381. Editorial Bd., FDA Should Do More with its Authority over Tobacco Products, WASH. POST (Feb. 4, 2013), http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02- 04/opinions/36741269-l-tobaccoproducts-menthol-cigarettes-lawrence-deyton.
382. Pierce et al., Effectiveness of Antismoking Campaigns in Australia, 80 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 565, 565 (1990) (comparing Melbourne and Sidney)
383. see also Brian R. Flay, Mass Media and Smoking Cessation, 77 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 153, 153 (1987)
384. McGrady, Clarification of US Proposal on Tobacco in the TPP, supra note 270;
385. Benn McGrady, Tobacco in the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement, TRADE, INVEST. & HEALTH (Nov. 29, 2012), http://www.oneillinstitutetradeblog.org/ tobacco-in-the-trans-pacific-partnership-agreement/?utm-source= feedburner&utm-medium=feed&utm-campaign=Feed%3A+oneill-tih+%28Trade%2C+ Investment+and+Health%29
386. See ABR, U. S.-Gasoline, supra note 214, at 23.
387. See McGrady, Clarification of US Proposal on Tobacco in the TPP, supra note 270.
388. See ABR, EC-Hormones, supra note 313, ¶ 164
389. See First Written Submission of the United States, United Slates-Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, ¶¶ 199-201, WT/DS406 (Nov. 16, 2010).
390. For an analysis that stresses the importance of prohibiting only facial discrimination in order to preserve the balance of domestic regulatory autonomy, see Request for Permission to Submit Information the Appellate Body by Non-Parties & Information for Submission to the Appellate Body on Behalf of O'Neill Institute for National and Global Health Law, Georgetown University Law Center, United States-Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, 2-5, WT/AN-2012-1/DS406 (Jan. 26, t2012), available at http://www.law.georgetown. edu/oneillinstitute/documents/2012-01- Clove%20Cigarettes.pdf (Article 2.1 of the TBT Agreement should be interpreted in a manner that does not upset the existing balance between domestic regulatory autonomy and respect for commitments (the balance between rights and obligations).
391. "Order - P3, in order to, b. (a) With a view to the bringing about of (something), for the purpose of (some desired end). Obs." Order Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
392. "To - III. Expressing the relation of purpose, destination, result, effect, resulting condition or status.; 8. a. Indicating aim, purpose, intention, or design" To Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
393. "For; for the purpose of; with the view or end of; in order to. (Now often replaced by for.) " For Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
394. "That - II. 3. a. Introducing a clause expressing purpose, end, aim, or desire: with simple subjunctive (arch.), or with may (pa. tense might), should, rarely shall." That Definition, OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY ONLINE, http://www.oed.com.
395. Comment from Joseph Brenner & EllenShaffer, Dirs., Ctr. for Pol'y Analysis on Trade & Health, to the Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, Comments Concerning Proposed United States-Trans-Pacific Partnership Trade Agreement, USTR-2009-0041, at 17 (Jan. 25, 2010).
396. See, e.g., WCTOH Decleration, supra note 109.
397. The Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement, Dom. Rep.-Cent. Am.-U. S., Annex 3.2, Aug. 5, 2004, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/tradeagreements/free-trade- agreements/cafta-dr-dominican-republic-central-america-fta/final-text.
398. United States-Jordan Free Trade Agreement, U. S.-Jordan, Annex 2.1, Oct. 24, 2000, Office of the U. S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov/trade- agreements/free-trade-agreements/jordan-fta/finaltext.
399. See REMY JURENAS, CRS REPORT FOR CONGRESS: AGRICULTURE IN U. S. FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS: TRADE WITH CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE PARTNERS, IMPACT, AND ISSUES 27 (2008) (stating that United States excluded sugar)
400. WHO FCTC, supra note 16, at art. 1 (e);
401. see U. S.-Peru FTA, supra note 48, at art. 22.3.1
402. Treaty between the United States of America and the Republic of Turkey Concerning the Reciprocal Encouragement and Protection of Investments, U. S.-Turk., art. 2.2, Dec. 3, 1985, SEN. TREATY DOC. NO. 99-19
403. [hereinafter U. S.-Turk. BIT]
404. (stating that national treatment applies to an investment "once established"); BEYZA BANU OZDILEK, MFN TREATMENT AND ITS SCOPE (2006).
405. See Cultural Industries Sectoral Advisory Group on International Trade, New Strategies for Culture and Trade Canadian Culture in a Global World, DEP'T OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS & INT'L TRADE CAN. (Feb. 1999), available at http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/fo/ canculture.aspx?lang=en&view=d.
406. See, e.g., U. S.-Austl. FTA, supra note 57, Annex II ("Australia reserves the right to adopt or maintain any measure with respect to wholesale and retail trade services of tobacco products, alcoholic beverages, or firearms.").
407. U. S.-Peru FTA, supra note 47, at art. 10.13, 11.6, Annex II (Explanatory Notes, art. 1).
408. Agreement Between New Zealand and Singapore on a Closer Economic Partnership, N. Z.-Sing., Annex 2, Nov. 14, 2000, N. Z. Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/2- Trade-Relationships-and-Agreements/Sing apore/Closer-Economic-Partnership- Agreement-text/index.php (explaining that New Zealand's schedule of commitment excluding agricultural raw materials, live animals, food products, beverages, tobacco and wool and putting restriction on national treatment and Singapore's schedule of commitment excluding food, beverages, tobacco and sale of motor vehicle and putting restriction on national treatment).
409. Barack Obama, President, Remarks by the President at the Signing of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (June 22, 2009) (transcript available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/Remarks-by-the- President-at-the-signing-of-the-familysmoking-prevention-and-tobacco-control- act/.