Moderate and Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. Pathophysiology and Management.

Neurosurgery Clinics of North America

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 309-319

  Frattalone, Anthony R ^a,b   Ling, Geoffrey S F ^a,b  

^a DEPARTMENT OF PATHOLOGY   (United States)

^b Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences   (United States)

Author keywords

Clinical practice guidelines; Coma; Concussion; CPP (cerebral perfusion pressure); Head injury; ICP (intracranial pressure); Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ENALAPRILAT; FENTANYL; LABETALOL; MANNITOL; NICARDIPINE; PARACETAMOL; PENTOBARBITAL; PROPOFOL; STEROID; SUFENTANIL;

BRAIN EDEMA; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN INFARCTION; COMA; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DECOMPRESSIVE CRANIECTOMY; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSAUTONOMIA; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EMERGENCY CARE; EMERGENCY WARD; FEVER; GLASGOW COMA SCALE; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; HYPOTHERMIA; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LOADING DRUG DOSE; MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE; MEDICAL EDUCATION; MICRODIALYSIS; NERVE CELL LESION; NERVOUS SYSTEM PARAMETERS; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; OXYGENATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MONITORING; PATIENT POSITIONING; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SPINAL CORD INJURY; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

BRAIN INJURIES; CRITICAL CARE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMANS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84879782655     PISSN: 10423680     EISSN: 15581349     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2013.03.006     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. Patel H. Trends in head injury outcome from 1989 to 2003 and the effect of neurosurgical care: an observational study. Lancet 2005, 366:1538.
2. Suarez J. Length of stay and mortality in neurocritically ill patients: impact of a specialized neurocritical care team. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:2311.
3. Thillai M. Neurosurgical units working beyond safe capacity. BMJ 2000, 320:399.
4. Varelas P. The impact of a neurointensivist-led team on a semiclosed neurosciences intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:2191.
5. Chesnut R. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. JTrauma 1993, 34:216.
6. McHugh G. Prognostic value of secondary insults in traumatic brain injury: results from the IMPACT study. JNeurotrauma 2007, 24:287.
7. Vespa P. Metabolic crisis without brain ischemia is common after traumatic brain injury: a combined microdialysis and positron emission tomography study. JCereb Blood Flow Metab 2005, 25:763.
8. Morganti-Kossmann M. Inflammatory response in acute traumatic brain injury: a double-edged sword. Curr Opin Crit Care 2002, 8:101.
9. Oertel M. Posttraumatic vasospasm: the epidemiology, severity, and time course of an underestimated phenomenon: a prospective study performed in 299 patients. JNeurosurg 2005, 103:812.
10. Manz H.J. Pathophysiology and pathology of elevated intracranial pressure. Pathobiol Annu 1979, 9:359-381.
11. Wijdicks E. The practice of emergency and criical care neurology 2010, Oxford University Press, New York.
12. Doczi T. Volume regulation of the brain tissue-a survey. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1993, 121(1-2):1-8.
13. McComb J.G. Recent research into the nature of cerebrospinal fluid formation and absorption. JNeurosurg 1983, 59(3):369-383.
14. Gjerris F. Pathophysiology of cerebrospinal fluid circulation 2000, Blackwell Science, Oxford (United Kingdom).
15. Lyons M.K., Meyer F.B. Cerebrospinal fluid physiology and the management of increased intracranial pressure. Mayo Clin Proc 1990, 65(5):684-707.
16. Arienta C. Management of head-injured patients in the emergency department: a practice protocol. Surg Neurol 1997, 48:213-219.
17. Balestreri M., Balestreri M., Czosnyka M., et al. Predictive value of Glasgow Coma Scale after brain trauma: change in trend over the past ten years. JNeurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004, 75:161.
18. Stocchetti N. Inaccurate early assessment of neurological severity in head injury. JNeurotrauma 2004, 21:1131.
19. Stead L., Stead L.G., Wijdicks E.F., et al. Validation of a new coma scale, the FOUR score, in the emergency department. Neurocrit Care 2009, 10:50.
20. Wijdicks E. Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Ann Neurol 2005, 58:585.
21. Eken C. Comparison of the Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score Coma Scale and the Glasgow Coma Scale in an emergency setting population. Eur J Emerg Med 2009, 16:29.
22. Shafi S. Intracranial pressure monitoring in brain-injured patients is associated with worsening of survival. JTrauma 2008, 64:335-340.
23. Stocchetti N. Hypoxemia and arterial hypotension at the accident scene in head injury. JTrauma 1996, 40:764.
24. Manley G. Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg 2001, 136:1118.
25. Andrews P. Predicting recovery in patients suffering from traumatic brain injury by using admission variables and physiological data: a comparison between decision tree analysis and logistic regression. JNeurosurg 2002, 97:326.
26. Stone M. The effect of rigid cervical collars on internal jugular vein dimensions. Acad Emerg Med 2010, 17(1):100-102.
27. Raphael J. Effects of the cervical collar on cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Anaesthesia 1994, 49(5):437-439.
28. Bernard S. Prehospital rapid sequence intubation improves functional outcome for patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg 2010, 252:959.
29. Davis D. The effect of paramedic rapid sequence intubation on outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. JTrauma 2003, 54:444.
30. Shribman A. Cardiovascular and catecholamine responses to laryngoscopy with and without tracheal intubation. Br J Anaesth 1987, 59:295.
31. Stoelting R. Hemodynamic responses to tracheal intubation with laryngoscope versus lightwand intubating device (Trachlight) in adults with normal airway. Anesthesiology 1977, 47:381.
32. Moulton C. Relation between Glasgow coma score and cough reflex. Lancet 1994, 343:1261.
33. Butler J. Towards evidence based emergency medicine: best BETs from Manchester Royal Infirmary. Lignocaine premedication before rapid sequence induction in head injuries. Emerg Med J 2002, 19:554.
34. Robinson N. In patients with head injury undergoing rapid sequence intubation, does pretreatment with intravenous lignocaine/lidocaine lead to an improved neurological outcome? A review of the literature. Emerg Med J 2001, 18:453.
35. Muizelaar J. Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. JNeurosurg 1991, 75:731.
36. Diringer M. No reduction in cerebral metabolism asa result of early moderate hyperventilation following severe traumatic brain injury. JNeurosurg 2000, 92:7.
37. Sakellaridis N. Comparison of mannitol and hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe brain injuries. JNeurosurg 2011, 114(2):545-548.
38. Zhang X. Impact of positive end-expiratory pressure on cerebral injury patients with hypoxemia. Am J Emerg Med 2011, 29(7):699-703.
39. Clifton G. Fluid thresholds and outcome from severe brain injury. Crit Care Med 2002, 30(4):739-745.
40. Cooper D. Prehospital hypertonic saline resuscitation of patients with hypotension and severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004, 291:1350.
41. Bulger E. Out-of-hospital hypertonic resuscitation following severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010, 304:1445.
42. Finfer S. Acomparison of albuminand saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. NEngl J Med 2004, 350:2247-2256.
43. Investigators S.S. Saline or albumin for fluid resuscitation in patients with traumatic brain injury. NEngl J Med 2007, 357:874.
44. Ley E. Elevated admission systolic blood pressure after blunt trauma predicts delayed pneumonia and mortality. JTrauma 2011, 71(6):1689-1693.
45. Vespa P. Nonconvulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury are associated with hippocampal atrophy. Neurology 2010, 75(9):792-798.
46. Kubal W. Updated imaging of traumatic brain injury. Radiol Clin North Am 2012, 50(1):15-41.
47. Juul N. Intracranial hypertension and cerebral perfusion pressure: influence on neurological deterioration and outcome in severehead injury. The Executive Committee of the International Selfotel Trial. JNeurosurg 2000, 92:1-6.
48. Bouma G. Cerebral blood flow, cerebral blood volume, and cerebrovascular reactivity after severe head injury. JNeurotrauma 1992, 9(1):S333.
49. Bouma G. Blood pressure and intracranial pressure-volume dynamics in severe head injury: relationship with cerebral blood flow. JNeurosurg 1992, 77:15.
50. Bratton S. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. JNeurotrauma 2007, 24:S1-S106.
51. Chang J. Physiologic and functional outcome correlates of brain tissue hypoxia in traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 2009, 37:283-290.
52. Vespa P. Pericontusional brain tissue exhibits persistent elevation of lactate/pyruvate ratio independent of cerebral perfusion pressure. Crit Care Med 2007, 35:1153-1160.
53. Czosnyka M. Cerebral autoregulation following head injury. JNeurosurg 2001, 95:756-763.
54. Coles J. Incidence and mechanisms of cerebral ischemia in early clinical head injury. JCereb Blood Flow Metab 2004, 24:202-211.
55. Bulger E. Management of severe head injury: institutional variations in care and effect on outcome. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:1870-1876.
56. Cremer O. Effect of intracranial pressure monitoring and targeted intensive care on functional outcome after severe head injury. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:2207-2213.
57. Scalfani M. Effect of osmotic agents on regional cerebral blood flow in traumatic brain injury. JCrit Care 2012, 27(5). 526.e7-12.
58. Eisenberg H. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. JNeurosurg 1988, 69:15-23.
59. Marshall G. Pentobarbital coma for refractory intra-cranial hypertension after severe traumatic brain injury: mortality predictions and one-year outcomes in 55 patients. JTrauma 2010, 69(2):275-283.
60. Johnston A. Effects of propofol on cerebral oxygenation and metabolism after head injury. Br JAnaesth 2003, 91(6):781-786.
61. Cooper D. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. NEngl J Med 2011, 364:1493.
62. Koehler D. Is early venous thromboembolism prophylaxis safe in trauma patients with intracranial hemorrhage?. JTrauma 2011, 70(2):324-329.
63. Temkin N. Risk factors for posttraumatic seizures in adults. Epilepsia 2003, 44(10):18.
64. Frey L. Epidemiology of posttraumatic epilepsy: a critical review. Epilepsia 2003, 44(10):11.
65. Meirelles C.J. Enteral or parenteral nutrition in traumatic brain injury: a prospective randomised trial. Nutr Hosp 2011, 26(5):1120-1124.
66. Bochicchio G. Tolerance and efficacy of enteral nutrition in traumatic brain-injured patients induced into barbiturate coma. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2006, 30(6):503-506.
67. Eriksson E. Cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure are not surrogates for brain tissue oxygenation in traumatic brain injury. Clin Neurophysiol 2012, 123(6):1255-1260.
68. Cruz J. On-line monitoring of global cerebral hypoxia in acute brain injury: relationship to intracranial hypertension. JNeurosurg 1993, 79:228-233.
69. Sheinberg M. Continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in head-injured patients. JNeurosurg 1992, 76:212-217.
70. Belli A., Sen J., Petzold A., et al. Metabolic failure precedes intracranial pressure rises in traumatic brain injury: a microdialysis study. Acta Neurochem (Wien) 2008, 150:461-469.
71. Stein N.R., McArthur D.L., Etchepare M., et al. Early cerebral metabolic crisis after TBI influences outcome despite adequate hemodynamic resuscitation. Neurocrit Care 2011, 32:1639-1651.
72. Rossi S. Brain temperature, body core temperature, and intracranial pressure in acute cerebral damage. JNeurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001, 71(4):448-454.
73. Sydenham E. Hypothermia for traumatic head injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009, (2). CD001048.
74. Rovlias A. The influence of hyperglycemia on neurological outcome in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery 2000, 46:335.
75. Jeremitsky E. The impact of hyperglycemia on patients with severe brain injury. JTrauma 2005, 58:47.
76. Oddo M. Impact of tight glycemic control on cerebral glucose metabolism after severe brain injury: a microdialysis study. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:3233.
77. Fernandez-Ortega J. Paroxysmal Sympathetic Hyperactivity after Traumatic Brain Injury: clinical and prognostic implications. JNeurotrauma 2012, 29(7):1364-1370.
78. Cotton B.A., Snodgrass K.B., Fleming S.B., et al. Beta-blocker exposure is associated with improved survival after severe traumatic brain injury. JTrauma 2007, 62(1):26-33. [discussion: 5].