Coherence between water and energy policies

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 117-215

  King, Carey W ^a   Stillwell, Ashlynn S ^a   Twomey, Kelly M ^a   Webber, Michael E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ELECTRICITY GENERATION; ENERGY POLICY; ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE; INSTITUTIONAL REFORM; POLICY DEVELOPMENT; SUSTAINABILITY; TRADE-OFF; VULNERABILITY; WATER PLANNING;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 84879198880     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (404)

1. John Harte & Mohamed El-Gasseir, Energy and Water, Science, Feb. 10, 1978, at 623.
2. Peter H. Gleick, Water and Energy, Ann. Rev. of Energy & the Env't, Nov. 1984, at 267.
3. Ronnie Cohen et. al., Energy Down the Drain: The Hidden Costs of California's Water Supply (Emily Cousins, ed., Natural Resources Defense Council 2004), available at http://www.nrdc.org/water/conservation/edrain/edrain.pdf.
4. See, e.g., Gary Klein et al., California Energy Commission, Report CEC-700-2005-011-SF, California's Water-Energy Relationship (2005).
5. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
6. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
7. See, e.g., Robert H. Abrams & Noah D. Hall, Framing Water Policy in a Carbon Affected and Carbon Constrained Environment, 50 Nat. Resources J. 3 (2010).
8. American Clean Energy Leadership Act of 2009, S. 1462, 111th Cong. § 141 (2009).
9. American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, H.R. 2454, 111th Cong. (2009).
10. Energy and Water Research Integration Act of 2012, H.R. 5827, 112th Cong. (2012).
11. Energy and Water Integration Act of 2011, S. 1343, 112th Cong. (2011).
12. Karen Hussey & Jamie Pittock, The Energy-Water Nexus: Managing the Links Between Energy and Water for a Sustainable Future, 17 Ecology & Soc'y 31 (2012).
13. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
14. When fish and aquatic organisms are withdrawn from the environment into the power plant facility.
15. When fish and aquatic organisms are pinned against water intake screens.
16. Clean Water Act Section 316(b) Existing Facilities Proposed Rule Qs and As, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Mar. 28, 2011), http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/ cwa/316b/upload/qa_proposed.pdf.
17. Clean Water Act Section 316(b) Existing Facilities Proposed Rule Qs and As, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Mar. 28, 2011), http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/ cwa/316b/upload/qa_proposed.pdf.
18. This article uses the terms water withdrawal and water consumption to describe water use. However, this terminology is not consistently used across countries. Here, water withdrawal refers to the volume of water removed from a water source; this water is not lost, but it cannot be allocated to other users before discharge. Consumption, on the other hand, refers to the volume of water lost via evaporation, transportation, or any other means by which water is not returned to its native source in liquid form. Since consumption is a subset of withdrawal, it is less than or equal to withdrawal, by definition.
19. Joan F. Kenny et al., U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 1344, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005 (2009).
20. Wayne B. Solley et al., U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 1200, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995 (1998).
21. See Michael A. Moran & Howard N. Shapiro, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics (John Wiley & Sons, 6th ed. 2008).
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23. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
24. Percentages add to greater than 100 percent due to rounding.
25. See, e.g., Cal. State Lands Comm'n, Proposed Resolution by the California State Lands Commission Regarding Once-Through Cooling in California Power Plants, (proposed Apr. 16, 2006), available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/siting/documents/2006-04-13_SLC_PROPOSED_COOLING.PDF.
26. Cassandra Sweet, California Rules Restrict Power Plants' Marine Water Use, Wall St. J., May 5, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052 748703961104575226041502104432.html.
27. Cal. State Lands Comm'n, Proposed Resolution by the California State Lands Commission Regarding Once-Through Cooling in California Power Plants, (proposed Apr. 16, 2006), available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/siting/documents/2006-04-13_SLC_PROPOSED_ COOLING.PDF.
28. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
29. Kelly Twomey & Ashlynn Stillwell, Electricity Generation Challenges and Opportunities (2009).
30. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
31. Range includes NGCC cycle at low end and nuclear at high end.
32. Range includes near full dry operation at low end and near full wet operation at high-end.
33. Range includes near full dry operation at low end and near full wet operation at high-end.
34. Using wet cooling as closed-loop cooling tower or cooling reservoir.
35. Using dry cooling as air-cooled condenser.
36. Limited data are available since technology is not available at commercial scale.
37. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
38. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
39. Safety concerns and cost make dry cooling for nuclear power plants an unlikely choice.
40. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
41. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
42. Water consumption for irrigated biomass fuel production was not reported. Reported withdrawal for dedicated energy crops is greater than 130,000 gallons (gal)/MWh, but is highly variable. Dana Larson, et al., California's Energy-Water Nexus: Water Use in Electricity Generation Southwest Hydrology, Sept./Oct. 2007.
43. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
44. Non-irrigated biomass is rain-fed; Congressional Research Service did not estimate the water consumed through plant ET.
45. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
46. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
47. Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle.
48. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
49. Source references did not specify whether values are for withdrawal or consumption.
50. Arnold Leitner Fuel from the Sky: Solar Power's Potential for Western Energy Supply. NREL, (2002), http://www.nrel.gov/csp/pdfs/32160.pdf.
51. American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) estimate, based on data obtained by AWEA, available at http://www.awea.org/faq/water.html.
52. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
53. Int'l Energy Agency, Renewable Energy Essentials: Hydropower 1 (2010), available at http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/name,3930, en. html.
54. P. Torcellini et al., Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., Consumptive Water Use for U.S. Power Production 3 (2003).
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56. Installing additional generators at a hydroelectric facility, allowing for increased peak capacity, is known as uprating. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation states that "uprating hydroelectric generator and turbine units at existing power plants is one of the most immediate, cost effective, and environmentally acceptable means for developing additional electrical power. " U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Generator Power Uprate Program Report, http:// www.usbr.gov/power/data/uprate/uprate.html#bor_program (revised Oct. 5, 2004).
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58. David Stanway, China Declares Three Gorges Hydro Project Complete, Reuters, July 4, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/china-threegorges-idUSL3E8I42Z W20 120704.
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62. AKO, Electrical Tracing System for the Andasol III Thermo-solar Power Project, http:// www.ako.com/w4pu/page/caso_exito_andasol3/en (last visited Dec. 27, 2012).
63. Arizona Public Service, About Solana Generating Station, http://www.aps.com/ main/green/Solana/About.html?source=101 (last visited Nov. 17, 2012).
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67. Associated Press, Drought Could Shut Down Nuclear Power Plants, MSNBC, http:// www.msnbc.msn.com/id/22804065 (last updated Jan. 23, 2008, 2:54:19 PM).
68. see also Mike Hightower & Suzanne A. Pierce, The Energy Challenge: Global Energy Consumption is Expected to Grow by 50% by 2030, Squeezing Already Scarce Water Resources, 452 Nature 285, 285 (2008).
69. Ministere de L' Écologie Du Développement Durable et de L' Énergie, La Production D'électricité, available at http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/La-production-delectricite. html (last updated Mar. 10, 2011).
70. Nat'l Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States 59 (Thomas R. Karl et al. eds, 2009).
71. T. P. Barnett et. al. Potential Impacts of a Warming Climate on Water Availability in Snow-Dominated Regions, 438 Nature 303, 305 (2005).
72. Nat'l Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States 83 (Thomas R. Karl et al. eds, 2009).
73. Nat'l Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States 83 (Thomas R. Karl et al. eds, 2009).
74. Thomas J. Feeley III et al., Water: A Critical Resource in the Thermoelectric Power Industry, 33 Energy 1, 1 (2008).
75. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
76. The Energy Found. & The Hewlett Found., The Last Straw: Water Use by Power Plants in the Arid West (2003), available at http://www.catf.us/resources/publications/ files/The_Last_Straw.pdf.
77. Thomas J. Feeley III et al., Water: A Critical Resource in the Thermoelectric Power Industry, 33 Energy 1, 1 (2008).
78. Thomas J. Feeley III et al., Water: A Critical Resource in the Thermoelectric Power Industry, 33 Energy 1, 1 (2008).
79. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
80. Peter H. Gleick, Water and Energy, Ann. Rev. of Energy & the Env't, Nov. 1984, at 267.
81. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
82. Canadian Ass'n of Petroleum Producers, Responsible Water Management in Canada's Oil and Gas Industry, Report 2010-0018 (2010).
83. Dennis Keeny & Mark Muller, Water Use by Ethanol Plants: Potential Challenges, Instutite For Agriculture and Trade Policy (Oct. 24, 2006), http://www.iatp.org/documents/ water-use-by-ethanol-plants-potential-challenges.
84. May Wu et al., Water Consumption in the Production of Ethanol and Petroleum Gasoline, 44 Envtl. Mgmt. 981, 987-88 (2009).
85. Based upon biorefinery consumption of 1,000-2,000 L water per tonne of sugar cane and 85 L of sugar cane per tonne. Jose Roberto Moreira, Water Use and Impacts Due Ethanol Production in Brazil (2007) (presented at the International Water Management Institute and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations conference: Linkages between Energy and Water Management for Agriculture in Developing Countries), available at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/EWMA/files/papers/Jose_Moreira.pdf.
86. Isaias C. Macedo et al., Green House Gases Emissions in the Production and Use of Ethanol from Sugarcane in Brazil: The 2005/2006 averages and a prediction for 2020, 32 Biomass & Bioenergy 582, 589-90 (2008).
87. Dennis Keeny & Mark Muller, Water Use by Ethanol Plants: Potential Challenges, Instutite For Agriculture and Trade Policy (Oct. 24, 2006), http://www.iatp.org/documents/ water-use-by-ethanol-plants-potential-challenges.
88. See Gören Berndes, Future Biomass Energy Supply: The Consumptive Water Use Perspective, 24 Int'l J. Water Res. Dev. 235 (2008).
89. Daniel J. Soeder & William M. Kappel, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources and Natural Gas Production from the Marcellus Shale (2009).
90. Nathaniel R. Warner, Geochemical Evidence for Possible Natural Migration of Marcellus Formation Brine to Shallow Aquifers in Pennsylvania, 109 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci. 11961, 11961-11966 (2012).
91. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
92. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
93. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
94. Yi-Wen Chiu, et al., Water Embodied in Bioethanol in the United States, 43 Envtl. Sci. & Tech. 2688, 2689 (2009).
95. Feedstocks for biofuels include traditional energy crops such as corn, soybeans, and sugarcane, and non-traditional energy crops such as switchgrass. Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed. 1989), available at http://www.oed.com/.
96. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
97. David Pimentel et al., Ethanol Production: Energy, Economic, and Environmental Losses, 189 Revs. Envt'l Contamination & Toxicology 25, 31 (2007).
98. David M. Lapola, et al., Modeling the Land Requirements and Potential Productivity of Sugarcane and Jatropha in Brazil and India Using the LPJmL Dynamic Global Vegetation Model, 33 Biomass and Bioenergy 1087, 1090 (2009).
99. Joao Martines-Filho et al., Bioenergy and the Rise of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol in Brazil, 21 Choices 91, 93 (2006).
100. Lignocellulosic crops contain both cellulose and lignin. The carbohydrates necessary for producing biofuels are bound to the lignin. An example is Miscanthus.
101. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
102. Sarah Graham, Environmental Effects of Spill Still Being Felt, Scientific American (Dec. 19, 2003), http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=environmental-effectsof .
103. See Restore the Gulf, http://www.restorethegulf.gov/task-force/joint-infocenter/ about (last visited Nov. 20, 2012).
104. Daniel J. Soeder & William M. Kappel, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources and Natural Gas Production from the Marcellus Shale (2009).
105. Erin N. Kelly et al., Oil Sands Development Contributes Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds to the Athabasca River and its Tributaries, 106 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci. 22346, 22349 (2009); see infra Section IV. B for more discussion.
106. The Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. § 1342 (2008).
107. The Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. § 1362(14) (2008).
108. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
109. Charlotte de Fraiture et al., Biofuels and Implications for Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impacts of Green Energy, 1 Water Pol'y Supplement 67 (2008).
110. Charlotte de Fraiture et al., Biofuels and Implications for Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impacts of Green Energy, 1 Water Pol'y Supplement 67 (2008).
111. Thomas W. Simpson et al., The New Gold Rush: Fueling Ethanol Production while Protecting Water Quality, 37 J. Envtl. Quality 318, 320 (2008).
112. D. Tilman et al., Carbon-Negative Biofuels From Low-Input High-Diversity Grassland Biomass, 314 Science 1598, 1598-1600 (2006).
113. D. Tilman et al., Carbon-Negative Biofuels From Low-Input High-Diversity Grassland Biomass, 314 Science 1598, 1598-1600 (2006).
114. Ronnie Cohen & Barry Nelson, Natural Resources Defense Council, Energy Down the Drain: The Hidden Costs of California's Water Supply (2004).
115. R. Goldstein & W. Smith, Electric Power Research Institute, No. 1006787, 4 Water & Sustainability: U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & Treatment-The Next Half Century (2000).
116. This does not include raw water collection and conveyance or treated water distribution and heating.
117. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
118. Bart Van der Bruggen & Carlo Vandecasteele, Distillation vs. Membrane Filtration: Overview of Process Evolutions in Seawater, 143 Desalination 207, 208 (2002).
119. Bart Van der Bruggen & Carlo Vandecasteele, Distillation vs. Membrane Filtration: Overview of Process Evolutions in Seawater, 143 Desalination 207, 208 (2002).
120. E. Cardona, et al., Performance Evaluation of CHP Hybrid Seawater Desalination Plants, 205 Disalination 1, 2 (2007).
121. Franz Trieb & Hans Müller-Steinhagen, Concentrating Solar Power for Seawater Desalination in the Middle East and North Africa, 220 Desalination 165 (2008).
122. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
123. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
124. Am. Water Works Ass'n Research Fund, Residential Water Use Summary (1999), available at http://www.waterrf.org/PublicReportLibrary/RFR90781_1999_241A. pdf.
125. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
126. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
127. Franklin L. Burton, Electric Power Research Institute, CR-106941, Water and Wastewater Industries: Characteristics and Energy Management Opportunities (1996)
128. Ashlynn S. Stillwell et al., Energy Recovery from Wastewater Treatment Plants in the United States: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus, 2 Sustainability 945, 945-46 (2010).
129. R. Goldstein & W. Smith, Electric Power Research Institute, No. 1006787, 4 Water & Sustainability: U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & Treatment-The Next Half Century (2000).
130. NEWater: The 3rd National Tap, PUB (last updated July 9, 2012), http://www.pub. gov.sg/WATER/NEWATER/Pages/default.aspx.
131. Sabine Lattemann & Thomas Höpner, Environmental Impact and Impact Assessment of Seawater Desalination, 220 Desalination 1, 3 (2008).
132. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], Mind the Gaps: Managing Mutual Dependence in Relations Among Levels of Government, OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, No. 14 (2009).
133. See, e.g., Robert H. Abrams & Noah D. Hall, Framing Water Policy in a Carbon Affected and Carbon Constrained Environment, 50 Nat. Resources J. 3 (2010).
134. See, e.g., Robert H. Abrams & Noah D. Hall, Framing Water Policy in a Carbon Affected and Carbon Constrained Environment, 50 Nat. Resources J. 3 (2010).
135. See Comm. Am. Energy Future et al., America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation 77-79 (2009).
136. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
137. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
138. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
139. Bethany Speer & Ron Koeing, Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., Property-Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) Financing of Renewables and Efficiency (2010), available at http:/ /www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47097.pdf.
140. Cara Beal et al., Energy and water metabolism of a sustainable subdivision in southeast QLD: the little toe of the urban ecological footprint? (2008) (unpublished) (on file with author) (presented in Melbourne, Australia at Enviro 2008).
141. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
142. Kirk Johnson, It's Now Legal to Catch a Raindrop in Colorado, N.Y. Times, June 28, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/29/us/29rain.html.
143. S.B. 32, 2010 Leg., Gen. Sess. (Utah 2010), available at http://le.utah.gov/~2010/ bills/sbillenr/sb0032.pdf (limiting storage to one 2,500 gallon underground tank or two 100 gallon above-ground tanks).
144. Fossil aquifers are those that are geologically sealed such that they do not accumulate water recharged from precipitation. Here we use 'quasi' to mean that the aquifer is recharged over thousands of years as opposed to withdrawing the water over decades.
145. Jinxia Wang et al. China's Water-Energy Nexus: Greenhouse-Gas Emissions from Groundwater Use for Agriculture, Envtl. Res. Letters, (IOPScience, Phila.), Mar. 14, 2012, at 1, 2.
146. Yoshihide Wada et al., Global depletion of groundwater resources, Geophysical Res. Letters, Oct. 26, 2010, at L20402, 3.
147. Texas Water Law, Tex. Water, http://texaswater.tamu.edu/water-law (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
148. See generally, Response to Petition for Review, Edwards Aquifer Authority v. Day, 369 S.W.3d 814 (Tex. 2012) (No. 08-0964).
149. Texas Water Law, Tex. Water, http://texaswater.tamu.edu/water-law (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
150. See David Baldock et al., Envt. Directorate of the European Comm'n, The Environmental Impacts of Irrigation in the European Union ii (Mar. 2000).
151. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
152. See David Baldock et al., Envt. Directorate of the European Comm'n, The Environmental Impacts of Irrigation in the European Union ii (Mar. 2000).
153. Bethany Speer & Ron Koeing, Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., Property-Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) Financing of Renewables and Efficiency (2010), available at http:/ /www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47097.pdf.
154. In the context of energy, "whole systems thinking" relates to the beneficial integration of individual energy production technologies and demands such that overall energy use and costs can be reduced rather than focusing on only one aspect at a time. Example concepts are when architects and heating ventilation and cooling engineers design a building together to minimize energy needs by proper building orientation, minimizing plumbing pipe bends to reduce pumping needs, and other concepts.
155. For example, as part of section 316(a) of the Clean Water Act and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permitting process, the United States Environmental Protection Agency establishes thermal discharge limits for some power plants to prevent water effluent from potentially killing wildlife due to raised water temperatures. 33 U.S.C. §1326(a) (2012).
156. See e.g., Clean Water Act Section 316(b) Regulations on Intake Structures for Industrial and Cooling Facilities, U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency (Mar. 28, 2011), http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/ lawsguidance/cwa/316b/index.cfm (accessed Nov. 21, 2012); 33 U.S.C. §1326(b) (2006).
157. Ashlynn S. Stillwell et al., The Energy-Water Nexus in Texas, 16 Ecology & Soc'y 2 (2011).
158. Jordan Macknick et al., Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies 25 (2011), available at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/50900.pdf.
159. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
160. A "trough" design involves several rows of parabolic-shaped mirrors that concentrate sunlight on a tube that lies at the mirror focal point and runs along the length of the mirror trough. This tube is filled with a heat transfer fluid, and that fluid flows into a heat exchanger that heats the steam for running through a conventional steam cycle for electricity generation. A "power tower" design uses hundreds to thousands of mirrors that track the sun moving across the sky to reflect the sunlight to a single point located at the top of a tower. This focal point is a location for transferring heat to steam that runs in a conventional steam cycle for electricity generation. See Energy and Power Generation Handbook: Established and Emerging Technologies ch. 1-5 (K.R. Rao ed. 2011).
161. Jordan Macknick et al., Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies 25 (2011), available at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/50900.pdf.
162. Nathaniel R. Warner, Geochemical Evidence for Possible Natural Migration of Marcellus Formation Brine to Shallow Aquifers in Pennsylvania, 109 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci. 11961, 11961-11966 (2012).
163. Dams can also be "re-operated" with an environmental focus to support freshwater inflow into bays and estuaries. Brian D. Richter & Gregory A. Thomas, Restoring Environmental Flows by Modifying Dam Operations, 12 Ecology & Soc'y 2 (2007).
164. See Terry Barker et al., Intergov't Panel on Climate Control, Climate change 2007: Mitigation, Contribution of Working group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 273-74 (B. Metz et al., eds., 2007).
165. Menachem Elimelech & William A. Phillip, The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment, 333 Science 712, 712-13 (2011).
166. Patrick Barta, Amid Water Shortage, Australia Looks to the Sea, Wall St. J., Mar. 11, 2008, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120518234721525073.html.
167. In order to economically transport via pipeline and subsequently inject CO2 into the subsurface, the CO2 must first be compressed to a liquid (or liquid-like supercritical) thermodynamic condition to minimize the handling volume. These compressors require electricity or natural gas to operate.
168. Katherine Romanak, Res. Assoc., Bureau of Econ. Geology, Presentation for the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice: Groundwater Protection (Sept. 7-8, 2011), available at http://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_ methodological_issues/application/pdf/groundwater_protectiion.pdf (Powerpoint slide show that accompanied presentation).
169. 2 Capture and Storage, 35 Energy Pol'y 4444, 4452 (2007).
170. The term "first-movers" generically refers to companies that install or construct technologies that are not yet fully commercially proven or economically viable, but for which the company can still find some benefit. An example is a company that captures CO2 to sell for use in enhanced oil recovery operations in mature oil fields.
171. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
172. Alexander E. Farrell et al., Ethanol can contribute to energy and environmental goals, 311 Science 506, 507 (2006).
173. David Pimentel et al., Ethanol Production: Energy, Economic, and Environmental Losses, 189 Revs. Envt'l Contamination & Toxicology 25, 31 (2007).
174. David Pimentel et al., Ethanol Production: Energy, Economic, and Environmental Losses, 189 Revs. Envt'l Contamination & Toxicology 25, 31 (2007).
175. Isaias C. Macedo et al., Green House Gases Emissions in the Production and Use of Ethanol from Sugarcane in Brazil: The 2005/2006 averages and a prediction for 2020, 32 Biomass & Bioenergy 582, 589-90 (2008).
176. André M. Nassar et al., Inst. Int'l Trade Negotiations, Report to the U.S. EPA Regarding the Proposed Changes to the Renewable Fuel Standard Program: Impacts on Land Use and GHG Emissions from a Shock on Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol Exports to the United States using the Brazilian Land Use Model (BLUM) 23-24 (2009).
177. Texas Water Law, Tex. Water, http://texaswater.tamu.edu/water-law (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
178. Ralf Otterpohl et al., Source Control in Urban Sanitation and Waste Management: Ten Systems with Reuse of Resources, 39 Water Sci. & Tech. 153, 153-60 (1999).
179. Cara Beal et al., Energy and water metabolism of a sustainable subdivision in southeast QLD: the little toe of the urban ecological footprint? (2008) (unpublished) (on file with author) (presented in Melbourne, Australia at Enviro 2008).
180. In Texas, for example, reclaimed water intended for use without human contact can have 800 colony-forming units (CFU) of E. coli per milliliter in a single grab sample. 30 Tex. Amin. Code §210.33 (2009). Drinking water must test negative for E. coli. Drinking Water Contaminants, U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, (May 2009), http://water.epa.gov/drink/ contaminants/index.cfm.
181. Ashlynn S. Stillwell & Michael E. Webber, Water Conservation and Reuse: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus in Texas, in World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2010: Challenges of Change 4102-04 (Richard N. Palmer ed., 2010).
182. For example, Texas Administrative Code outlines required spacing between drinking water, reclaimed water, and wastewater pipes underground to prevent cross-contamination from leaking. Additionally, reclaimed water infrastructure is painted purple to minimize confusion and prevent mistaking reclaimed water pipes for drinking water pipes. 30 Tex. Amin. Code §210.21-210.25 (2009).
183. See S.B. 1, 1997 Leg., 75th Sess. (Tex. 1997).
184. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
185. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
186. See Karen Hussey & Jamie Pittock, The Energy-Water Nexus: Managing the Links Between Energy and Water for a Sustainable Future, 17 Ecology & Soc'y 31 (2012).
187. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
188. Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory, Impact of New Technolgies on Sustainability, http://www.bioetanol.org.br/english/interna/index.php?chave=sustainabili ty (last visited Dec. 27, 2012).
189. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
190. Taikan Oki & Shinjiro Kanae, Global Hydrological Cycles and World Water Resources, 313 Sci. Mag., no. 5790, Aug. 25, 2006, at 1068, 1069.
191. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
192. Peter H. Gleick, Water and Energy, Ann. Rev. of Energy & the Env't, Nov. 1984, at 267.
193. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
194. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
195. Peter Rogers et al., Water is an Economic Good: How to Use Prices to Promote Equity, Efficiency, and Sustainability, 4 Water Pol'y 1, 7 (2002).
196. See Robert Costanza et al., The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital, 387 Nature 253 (1997).
197. Johan Rockstrom et al., Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity, 14 Ecology & Soc'y, art. 32, 2009.
198. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
199. City of Austin, Austin's Water Treatment Plant 4: History, Finances and Next Steps (July 17, 2009), http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/edims/document.cfm?id=129448.
200. Texas Water Development Board, Brackish Groundwater Manual for Texas Regional Water Planning Groups (2003).
201. Allen W. Sturdivant et al., Economic Costs of Desalination in South Texas: A Case Study, 137 J. Contemp. Water Res. & Educ. 21, 21-39 (2007).
202. Brett Walton, The Price of Water: A Comparison of Water Rates, Usage in 30 U.S. Cities, Circle of Blue (Apr. 26, 2010, 7:22 PM), http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/ world/the-price-of-water-a-comparison-of-water-rates-usage-in-30-u-s-cit ies/.
203. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
204. Food & Agric. Org. of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/nr/water/ aquastat/water_use/index.stm (last visited Dec. 27, 2012).
205. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
206. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
207. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
208. Example: The United States issues research grants and performs research at national energy laboratories and the United States Department of Agriculture.
209. D. Tilman et al., Carbon-Negative Biofuels From Low-Input High-Diversity Grassland Biomass, 314 Science 1598, 1598-1600 (2006).
210. Cara Beal et al., Energy and water metabolism of a sustainable subdivision in southeast QLD: the little toe of the urban ecological footprint? (2008) (unpublished) (on file with author) (presented in Melbourne, Australia at Enviro 2008).
211. Nathan W. Ayer & Peter H. Tyedmers, Assessing Alternative Aquaculture Technologies: Life Cycle Assessment of Salmonid Culture Systems in Canada, J. Cleaner Prod., Feb. 2008, at 4.
212. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
213. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
214. Including treatment, conveyance, water heating, oil and gas extraction, etc.
215. Ralf Otterpohl, et al., Source Control in Urban Sanitation and Waste Management: Ten Systems with Reuse of Resources, 39 Water Sci. & Tech. 153 (1999).
216. Ashlynn S. Stillwell, et al., The Energy-Water Nexus in Texas, 16 Ecology and Soc'y, art. 2, 2011.
217. Capacity factor refers to the ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time to its output if it had been operating at its full nameplate capacity over the specified time period.
218. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
219. John Manuel, Drought in the Southeast: Lessons for Water Management, 116 Environ. Health Persp. A168, A168 (2008).
220. John Manuel, Drought in the Southeast: Lessons for Water Management, 116 Environ. Health Persp. A168, A168 (2008).
221. Matthew Wald, Vermont Senate Votes to Close Nuclear Plant, N.Y. Times, Feb. 25 2010, at A14.
222. Thomas O. McGarity, MTBE: A Precautionary Tale, 28 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 281, 281-82, 288 (2004).
223. Such as wind and solar PV electricity; biofuels derived from non-irrigated feedstocks.
224. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
225. See, e.g., Robert H. Abrams & Noah D. Hall, Framing Water Policy in a Carbon Affected and Carbon Constrained Environment, 50 Nat. Resources J. 3 (2010).
226. Gary Klein et al., Cal. Energy Comm'n, California's Water-Energy Relationship 10 (2005), available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/2005publications/CEC-700-2005-011/CEC-700-2005- 011-SF.PDF.
227. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
228. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
229. Erik K. Webb & Joshua Johnson, Federal Engagement in Water Resource Technology Development: Current Programs and the Future, 143, J. Contemporary: Water Res. & Ed. 3, 4-6 (2009).
230. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
231. U.S. Gov't Accountability Office, GAO-05-379, National Energy Policy: Inventory of Major Federal Energy Programs and Status of Policy Recommendations (2005), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05379.pdf.
232. The DOD is the largest fuel consumer of the United States. Cheryl Pellerin, DOD Gives High Priority to Saving Energy (Sept. 29, 2011), http://www.defense.gov/news/news article.aspx?id=65480.
233. Erik K. Webb & Joshua Johnson, Federal Engagement in Water Resource Technology Development: Current Programs and the Future, 143, J. Contemporary: Water Res. & Ed. 3, 4-6 (2009).
234. William Goldfarb, Watershed Management: Slogan or Solution? 21 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 483, 494 (1994).
235. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
236. See, e.g., Robert H. Abrams & Noah D. Hall, Framing Water Policy in a Carbon Affected and Carbon Constrained Environment, 50 Nat. Resources J. 3 (2010).
237. The purpose of S. 1462 (111th): American Clean Energy Act of 2009 was "to promote clean energy technology development, enhanced energy efficiency, improved energy security, and energy innovation and workforce development, and for other purposes. " S. 1462, 111th Cong. (2009) (enacted).
238. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
239. "Fuel mix" refers to the amount of each primary energy source used in the United States.
240. H.B. No. 4206, Leg. 81st Sess. (Tex. 2009) (In effect as of September 1, 2009.).
241. Claire Charbit & Maria Varinia Michalun, Mind the gaps: Managing Mutual Dependence in Relations among Levels of Government, 14 OECD Working Papers on Pub. Governance 1, 13 (2009).
242. Erik K. Webb & Joshua Johnson, Federal Engagement in Water Resource Technology Development: Current Programs and the Future, 143, J. Contemporary: Water Res. & Ed. 3, 4-6 (2009).
243. Erik K. Webb & Joshua Johnson, Federal Engagement in Water Resource Technology Development: Current Programs and the Future, 143, J. Contemporary: Water Res. & Ed. 3, 4-6 (2009).
244. U. S. Envt'l Prot. Agency, The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis (2002).
245. Including electric transmission, fuel pipelines, smart grid equipment, and biorefineries.
246. Am. Soc'y of Civil Eng'rs, Report Card for America's Infrastructure: Energy (2009), http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/energy.
247. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
248. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
249. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
250. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
251. U.S. Gov't Accountability Office, GAO-05-379, National Energy Policy: Inventory of Major Federal Energy Programs and Status of Policy Recommendations (2005), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05379.pdf.
252. Other factors such as the location of the resource extraction also contribute to this trend.
253. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
254. "Million gal per day" and "acre-feet per year, " as reported by the USGS. Wayne B. Solley et al., U.S. Geological Surv., Estimated Use of Water in The United States in 2005, at 6 (1998).
255. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
256. Carey W. King, Ian Duncan & Michael Webber, Water Demand Projections for Power Generation in Texas, Texas Water Development Board (2008).
257. e.g. at the power plant intake versus the point of withdrawal from a river.
258. Nat'l Energy Tech. Lab., Impact of Drought on U.S. Steam Electric Power Plant Cooling Water Intakes and Related Water Resource Management Issues 21 (2009).
259. Erik K. Webb & Joshua Johnson, Federal Engagement in Water Resource Technology Development: Current Programs and the Future, 143, J. Contemporary: Water Res. & Ed. 3, 4-6 (2009).
260. Thomas J. Feeley III et al., Water: A Critical Resource in the Thermoelectric Power Industry, 33 Energy 1, 1 (2008).
261. See Brian E. Gray, The Property Right in Water, 9 Hastings W-Nw. J. Envtl. L. & Pol'y 2 (2002).
262. For example, it takes decades to build large-scale waterworks, whereas only years to build power plants.
263. Canals, dams, etc., can last hundreds of years, whereas most power plants or transmission lines last decades.
264. For example, thermal power plant waste heat for water treatment.
265. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
266. The Energy-Water Nexus, Sandia National Laboraties, http://www.sandia.gov/energy-water/ (last visited Nov. 21, 2012).
267. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
268. See Haw. Rev. Stat. § 196-5.5 (2010).
269. See Cal. Energy Comm'n, California's Water-Energy Relationship (2005), available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/2005publications/CEC-700-2005-011/CEC-700-2005- 011-SF.PDF.
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295. See Australia introduces controversial carbon tax, BBC Asia, July 1, 2012, http:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18662560.
296. See Water Act 2007 (Cth) s 10 (Austl.), available at http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ Details/C2012C00229.
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302. NWI Objectives. Nat'l Water Comm'n, http://nwc.gov.au/nwi/objectives (last visited Nov. 20, 2012).
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309. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
310. Austl. Gov't, Securing Australia's Energy Future 3 (Dep't of the Prime Minister & Cabinet eds., 2004).
311. Australian Dep't of Resources, Energy, and Tourism, Energy in Australia 2011, available at http://www.ret.gov.au/energy/Documents/facts-stats-pubs/Energy-in-Austra lia-2011.pdf.
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315. Austl. Gov't, Securing Australia's Energy Future 3 (Dep't of the Prime Minister & Cabinet eds., 2004).
316. Water Act 2007 (Cth) pt 2, div 2, s 120 (Austl.).
317. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
318. The project maintains a website at http://www.water.anu.edu.au/project/auscew/.
319. La Production dÉlectricité, Ministère de l>>Écologie, du Développment Durable et de l>>Énergie (updated Mar. 12, 2011), http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Laproduction-d-electricite.html .
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323. The Six French Water Agencies are Public Institutions of the Ministry of Sustainable Development, The Water Agencies, http://www.lesagencesdeleau.fr/les-agences-de-leau/ les-six-agences-de-leau-francaises/?lang=en (last visited Nov. 14, 2012).
324. Maitriser l'Eau Pour une Agriculture de Qualité, Ministère de l>Agriculture de l>Agroalimentaire et de la Foret, http://agriculture.gouv.fr/sections/thematiques/environnement/ maitrise-de-l-eau (last visited Nov. 14, 2012).
325. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
326. See Environment Directorate of the European Commission, The Environmental Impacts of Irrigation in the European Union, at 117 (Mar. 2000).
327. Charlotte de Fraiture et al., Biofuels and Implications for Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impacts of Green Energy, 1 Water Pol'y Supplement 67 (2008).
328. See Hannah Förster & Johan Lilliestam, Modeling thermoelectric power generation in view of climate change, 10 Reg'l Envtl. Change 327, 328 (2010).
329. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
330. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
331. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
332. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
333. Mike Major, Super-size Hydro; Wind in Pipeline, Renewable Energy Focus, July-Aug. 2011, at 22, 23.
334. Kathryn Hochstetler, The Politics of Environmental Licensing: Energy Projects of the Past and Future in Brazil, Stud. Comp. Int'l Dev., Dec. 2011, at 349, 358.
335. Interministerial Committee on Climate Change, Executive Summary National Plan on Climate Change 10 (2008) (Braz.).
336. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
337. See Frank Rosillo-Calle, & Luis A.B. Cortez, Towards ProAlcool II-a Review of the Brazilian Bioethanol Programme, 14 Biomass & Bioenergy 115, 115 (1998).
338. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
339. U.S. Dep't of Energy, Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (2006), available at http://www. sandia.gov/energy-water/congress_report.htm.
340. David M. Lapolaa et al., Modeling the Land Requirements and Potential Productivity of Sugarcane and Jatropha in Brazil and India Using the LPJmL Dynamic Global Vegetation Model, 33 Biomass & Bioenergy 1087, 1093 (2009).
341. E.g. Paraiba.
342. Frank Rosillo-Calle & Luis A.B. Cortez, Towards ProAlcool II-a Review of the Brazilian Bioethanol Programme, 14 Biomass & Bioenergy 115 (1998).
343. For example, sugar cane industry, fuel distributors, automobile.
344. Constanza Valdes, U.S. Dep't of Agric., Brazil's Ethanol Industry: Looking Forward (2011), available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/126865/bio02.pdf.
345. Interministerial Committee on Climate Change, Executive Summary National Plan on Climate Change 10 (2008) (Braz.).
346. See Sugarcane Agro-Ecological Zoning a Welcome Step to Promote Sustainability, but Amendments will be Needed According to Brazilian Sugarcane Industry, UNICA-Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Ass'n (Sept. 18, 2009), http://english.unica.com.br/releases/show. asp?rlsCode=a6FF09728-9C40-4291-B419-47050EA5545F6.
347. One ton of sugar cane translates to approximately 85 L of ethanol. See Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Ass'n & AppexBrasil, Virtual Tour of a Sugarcane Mill, http://sugarcane. org/about-sugarcane/virtual-mill-tour/virtual-tour-of-a-sugarcane-mill-t ranscript (last visited Jan 27, 2013).
348. See Günter Gunkel et al., Sugar Cane Industry as a Source of Water Pollution-Case Study on the Situation in Ipojuca River, Pernambuco, Brazil, Water Air & Soil Pollution, Mar. 2007, at 261, 262.
349. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
350. UN Food and Agricultural Organization Statistics, http://faostat3.fao.org/ home/index.html.
351. See Rakesh Kumar et al., Water Resources of India, 89 Current Sci. 794, 810-11 (2005).
352. See Rakesh Kumar et al., Water Resources of India, 89 Current Sci. 794, 810-11 (2005).
353. Irrigation accounts for 83 percent of total water use. Mohua Guha & Kamla Gupta, Water Resources in India: Critical Issues Related to Availability and Sustainable Use, IASSI Q., Jan.-Mar. 2007, at 90.
354. John Manuel, Drought in the Southeast: Lessons for Water Management, 116 Environ. Health Persp. A168, A168 (2008).
355. See Matthew Rodell et al., Satellite-based Estimates of Groundwater Depletion in India, 460 Nature 999, 999-02 (2009).
356. See Matthew Rodell et al., Satellite-based Estimates of Groundwater Depletion in India, 460 Nature 999, 999-02 (2009).
357. Irrigation accounts for 83 percent of total water use. Mohua Guha & Kamla Gupta, Water Resources in India: Critical Issues Related to Availability and Sustainable Use, IASSI Q., Jan.-Mar. 2007, at 90.
358. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
359. Irrigation accounts for 83 percent of total water use. Mohua Guha & Kamla Gupta, Water Resources in India: Critical Issues Related to Availability and Sustainable Use, IASSI Q., Jan.-Mar. 2007, at 90.
360. Franz Trieb & Hans Müller-Steinhagen, Concentrating Solar Power for Seawater Desalination in the Middle East and North Africa, 220 Desalination 165 (2008).
361. John Manuel, Drought in the Southeast: Lessons for Water Management, 116 Environ. Health Persp. A168, A168 (2008).
362. Charlotte de Fraiture et al., Biofuels and Implications for Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impacts of Green Energy, 1 Water Pol'y Supplement 67 (2008).
363. John Manuel, Drought in the Southeast: Lessons for Water Management, 116 Environ. Health Persp. A168, A168 (2008).
364. Jaswinder Singh & Sai Gu, Commercialization Potential of Microalgae for Biofuels Production, 14 Renewable & Sustainable Energy Revs. 2596, 2596-2610 (2010).
365. Water Wisdom: Preparing the Groundwork for Cooperative and Sustainable Water Management in the Middle East (Alon Tal & Alfred Abed Rabbo eds., 2010).
366. Capacity of 348 million L/day.
367. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
368. Water Wisdom: Preparing the Groundwork for Cooperative and Sustainable Water Management in the Middle East (Alon Tal & Alfred Abed Rabbo eds., 2010).
369. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
370. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
371. John Bacher, Petrotyranny 70 (Shirley Farlinger & Derek Paul eds., 2000).
372. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
373. Flue gas refers to the combustion product gases discharged to the atmosphere through a flue-gas stack.
374. Transformative Technologies 2010 nominees: Microalgae, cyanobacteria, lemna, and plankton, Biofuels Dig. (June 7, 2010), http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2010/06/07/ transformative-technologies-2010-nominees-microalgae-cyanobacteria-lemna -and-plankton/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2012).
375. Seambiotic Press Release, Seambiotic (Dec. 1, 2009), http://www.seambiotic.com/ News/news-updates/seambiotic-and-chinese-power-company-to-build-10-milli on-commercial-microalgae-farm-in-china/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2012).
376. Water Authority, Ministry of National Infrastructures, A Long-Term Master Plan for the National Water Sector (2010) (policy document of the State of Israel).
377. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
378. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
379. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
380. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
381. Eco-efficient water infrastructure practices in Singapore, EcoWIN (April 29, 2010), http://www.ecowaterinfra.org/knowledgebox/documents/case%20study%20in%20 Singapore. pdf
382. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
383. PUB, NEWater: The 3rd National Tap (April 20, 2010), http://www.pub.gov.sg/ water/newater/Pages/default.aspx.
384. Lee Poh Onn, Water Management Issues in Singapore (2005) (unpublished), available at: khmerstudies. org/download-files/events/Water/Lee% 20Nov%202005. pdf.
385. Notably, NEWater is less energy-intensive than water from desalination.
386. Deh Chien Chen et al., Institutional Capacity and Policy Options for Integrated Urban Water Management: a Singapore Case Study, 13 Water Pol'y. 53-68 (2010).
387. Ministry of the Envt. & Water Res. (May 05, 2011), http://app.mewr.gov.sg/ web/contents/Contents.aspx?ContId=475&pf=y&pf=y (last visited Nov. 27, 2012).
388. The Singapore Water Story, PUB (Aug. 22, 2012), http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/ Pages/singaporewaterstory.aspx (last visited Nov. 27, 2012).
389. Deh Chien Chen et al., Institutional Capacity and Policy Options for Integrated Urban Water Management: a Singapore Case Study, 13 Water Pol'y. 53-68 (2010).
390. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
391. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
392. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
393. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
394. Comité Técnico de Operacion de Obras Hidráulicas in Spanish.
395. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
396. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
397. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
398. See e.g., Peter D. Nichols & Douglas S. Kenney, Watering Growth in Colorado: Swept Along by the Current or Choosing a Better Line, 6 U. Denv. Water L. Rev. 411, 420 (2003) ("Complex cases can stretch over years and attract dozens of opponents.
399. La Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente.
400. OECD is an organization of 34 member countries aimed at promoting policies that increase economic, social, and environmental well-being. About the OCED, Org. Econ. CoOperation & Dev., http://www.oecd.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 16, 2012).
401. Simon D. Donner & Christopher J. Kucharik, Corn Based Ethanol Production Compromises Goal of Reducing Nitrogen Export by the Mississippi River, 105 Proc. of the Nat'l Acad. of Sci., 4513 (2008).
402. James E. Bené et al., Northern Trinity/Woodbine GAM Assessment of Groundwater Use in the Northern Trinity Aquifer Due To Urban Growth and Barnett Shale Development (2007) (report prepared for the Texas Water Development Board).
403. A supercritical fluid is a substance that exists at a temperature and pressure above its critical point.
404. E.g. to develop low-water biofuels, low-energy desalination, etc.