Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio-respiratory mortality: A review

Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 2013, Pages

  Hoek, Gerard ^a   Krishnan, Ranjini M ^b   Beelen, Rob ^a   Peters, Annette ^c   Ostro, Bart ^d   Brunekreef, Bert ^a,e   Kaufman, Joel D ^b  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c INSTITUTE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY   (Germany)

^d Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology Branch   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER UTRECHT   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Air pollution; Cardiovascular; Mortality; Motorized traffic; Particles; Respiratory

Indexed keywords

CARBON; NITROGEN DIOXIDE; AIR POLLUTANT; PARTICULATE MATTER;

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMBUSTION; EPIDEMIOLOGY; GEOGRAPHICAL REGION; INFILTRATION; LITERATURE REVIEW; MORTALITY; NITROGEN DIOXIDE; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; RESPIRATORY DISEASE;

AIR POLLUTANT; AIR POLLUTION; AIR POLLUTION CONTROL; AMBIENT AIR; ASIA; BIOMETRY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CAUSE OF DEATH; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMBUSTION; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EFFECT SIZE; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; GEOGRAPHY; HEALTH HAZARD; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; INDOOR AIR POLLUTION; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MEDLINE; META ANALYSIS; MORTALITY; PARTICULATE MATTER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; PARTICLE SIZE; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASES;

ASIA;

SCOPUS;

AIR POLLUTANTS; AIR POLLUTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; PARTICLE SIZE; PARTICULATE MATTER; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASES;

EID: 84878869536     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1476069X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1476-069X-12-43     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. World Health Organization, Systematic review of air pollution, a global update 2006
2. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. Pope CA 3rd, Dockery DW, J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2006 56 709 742 10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485 16805397
3. Air pollution and health. Brunekreef B, Holgate ST, Lancet 2002 360 1233 1242 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11274-8 12401268
4. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: an update to the scientific statement from the American heart association. Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Pope CA, Brook JR, Bhatnagar A, Diez-Roux AV, Holguin F, Hong Y, Luepker RV, Mittleman MA, Peters A, Siscovick D, Smith SC, Whitsel L, Kaufman JD, Circulation 2010 121 2331 2378 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1 20458016
5. Chronic effects of air pollution on cardiovascular health. Krishnan RM, Kaufman JD, Hoek G, Cardiovascular effects of inhaled ultrafine and nanosized particles Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Cassee FR, Mills NL, Newby D, 2011
6. HEI panel, Traffic-related air pollution. A critical review of the literature on emissions, exposure and health effects Boston, MA: Health Effects Institute HEI Special report 17. 2010
7. Black carbon as an additional indicator of the adverse effects of airborne particles compared with PM10 and PM2.5. Janssen NA, Hoek G, Simic-Lawson M, Fischer P, van Bree L, ten Brink H, Keuken M, Atkinson RW, Anderson HR, Brunekreef B, Cassee FR, Environ Health Perspect 2011 119 1691 1699 10.1289/ehp.1003369 21810552
8. Lessons from air pollution epidemiology for studies of engineered nanomaterials. Peters A, Rückerl R, Cyrys J, J Occup Environ Med 2011 53 6 SUPPL 8 S13 21654423
9. Health effects of particulate air pollution: a review of epidemiological evidence. Rückerl R, Schneider A, Breitner S, Cyrys J, Peters A, Inhal Toxicol 2011 23 555 592 10.3109/08958378.2011.593587 21864219
10. Contrast in air pollution components between major streets and background locations: particulate matter mass, black carbon, elemental composition, nitrogen oxide and ultrafine particle number. Boogaard H, Kos GPA, Weijers EP, Janssen NAH, Fischer PH, van der Zee SC, de Hartog JJ, Hoek G, Atmos Environ 2011 45 650 658 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.10.033
11. Epidemiological evidence of effects of coarse airborne particles on health. Brunekreef B, Forsberg B, Eur Respir J 2005 26 309 318 10.1183/09031936.05.00001805 16055881
12. Meta-analysis in clinical trials. DerSimonian R, Laird N, Control Clin Trials 177 7 177 188
13. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG, Br Med J 2003 327 557 560 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
14. Reduction in fine particulate Air pollution and mortality: extended follow-up of the Harvard Six cities study. Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006 173 667 672 10.1164/rccm.200503-443OC 16424447
15. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. Dockery DW, Pope CA III, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, Ferris BG Jr, Speizer FE, N Engl J Med 1993 329 1753 1759 10.1056/NEJM199312093292401 8179653
16. Chronic exposure to fine particles and mortality: an extended follow-up of the Harvard six cities study from 1974 to 2009. Lepeule J, Laden F, Dockery D, Schwartz J, Environ Health Perspect 2012 120 965 970 10.1289/ehp.1104660 22456598
17. Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. Pope CA 3rd, Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Dockery DW, Evans JS, Speizer FE, Jr HC, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995 151 669 674 10.1164/ajrccm/151.3-Pt-1.669 7881654
18. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Pope CA 3rd, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Ito K, Thurston GD, JAMA 2002 287 1132 1141 10.1001/jama.287.9.1132 11879110
19. Spatial analysis of air pollution and mortality in Los Angeles. Jerrett M, Burnett RT, Ma R, Pope CA 3rd, Krewski D, Newbold KB, Thurston G, Shi Y, Finkelstein N, Calle EE, Thun MJ, Epidemiology 2005 16 727 736 10.1097/01.ede.0000181630.15826.7d 16222161
20. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and cardiopulmonary mortality in women. Gehring U, Heinrich J, Kramer U, Grote V, Hochadel M, Sugiri D, Kraft M, Rauchfuss K, Eberwein HG, Wichmann HE, Epidemiology 2006 17 545 551 10.1097/01.ede.0000224541.38258.87 16755270
21. Long-term exposure to NO2 and PM10 and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a prospective cohort of women. Heinrich J, Thiering E, Rzehak P, Krämer U, Hochadel M, Rauchfuss KM, Gehring U, Wichmann H, Occup Environ Med 2013 70 179 186 10.1136/oemed-2012-100876 23220504
22. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, Shepherd K, Sullivan JH, Anderson GL, Kaufman JD, N Engl J Med 2007 356 447 458 10.1056/NEJMoa054409 17267905
23. Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR study). Beelen R, Hoek G, van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, Fischer P, Schouten LJ, Jerrett M, Hughes E, Armstrong B, Brunekreef B, Environ Health Perspect 2008 116 196 202 10.1289/ehp.10614 18288318
24. Chronic particulate exposure, mortality, and coronary heart disease in the Nurses' Health Study. Puett RC, Schwartz J, Hart JE, Yanosky JD, Speizer FE, Suh H, Paciorek CJ, Neas LM, Laden F, Am J Epidemiol 2008 168 1161 1168 10.1093/aje/kwn232 18835862
25. Chronic fine and coarse particulate exposure, mortality, and coronary heart disease in the Nurses' Health Study. Puett RC, Hart JE, Yanosky JD, Paciorek C, Schwartz J, Suh H, Speizer FE, Laden F, Environ Health Perspect 2009 117 1697 1701 10.1289/ehp.0900572 20049120
26. Mortality in the Medicare population and chronic exposure to fine particulate air pollution in urban centers (2000-2005). Zeger SL, Dominici F, McDermott A, Samet JM, Environ Health Perspect 2008 116 1614 1619 10.1289/ehp.11449 19079710
27. Long-term exposure to constituents of fine particulate air pollution and mortality: results from the California teachers study. Ostro B, Lipsett M, Reynolds P, Goldberg D, Hertz A, Garcia C, Henderson KD, Bernstein L, Environ Health Perspect 2010 118 363 369 20064787
28. Aircraft noise, air pollution, and mortality from myocardial infarction. Huss A, Spoerri A, Egger M, Röösli M, Epidemiology 2010 21 829 836 10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181f4e634 20881600
29. Particulate matter exposures, mortality, and cardiovascular disease in the health professionals follow-up study. Puett RC, Hart JE, Suh H, Mittleman M, Laden F, Environ Health Perspect 2011 119 1130 1135 10.1289/ehp.1002921 21454146
30. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and the risk of coronary heart disease hospitalization and mortality. Gan WQ, Koehoorn M, Davies HW, Demers PA, Tamburic L, Brauer M, Environ Health Perspect 2011 119 501 507 21081301
31. Association between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and mortality in China: a cohort study. Cao J, Yang C, Li J, Chen R, Chen B, Gu D, Kan H, J Hazard Mater 2011 186 1594 1600 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.036 21194838
32. Long-term ambient multipollutant exposures and mortality. Hart JE, Garshick E, Dockery DW, Smith TJ, Ryan L, Laden F, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011 183 73 78 10.1164/rccm.200912-1903OC 20656944
33. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and mortality due to cardiovascular disease and cerebrovascular disease in Shenyang, China. Zhang P, Dong G, Sun B, Zhang L, Chen X, Ma N, Yu F, Guo H, Huang H, Lee YL, Tang N, Chen J, PLoS One 2011 6 20827 10.1371/journal.pone.0020827 21695220
34. Risk of nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality in relation to long-term exposure to low concentrations of fine particulate matter: a Canadian national-level cohort study. Crouse DL, Peters PA, van Donkelaar A, Goldberg MS, Villeneuve PJ, Brion O, Khan S, Atari DO, Jerrett M, Pope CA, Brauer M, Brook JR, Martin RV, Stieb D, Burnett RT, Environ Health Perspect 2012 120 708 714 10.1289/ehp.1104049 22313724
35. Air pollution and mortality in New Zealand: cohort study. Hales S, Blakely T, Woodward A, J Epidemiol Community Health 2012 66 468 473 10.1136/jech.2010.112490 20966448
36. Long-term exposure to air pollution and cardiorespiratory disease in the California teachers study cohort. Lipsett MJ, Ostro BD, Reynolds P, Goldberg D, Hertz A, Jerrett M, Smith DF, Garcia C, Chang ET, Bernstein L, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011 184 828 835 10.1164/rccm.201012-2082OC 21700913
37. Exposure to particulate matter and long-term risk of cardiovascular mortality in Japan: NIPPON DATA80. Ueda K, Nagasawa SY, Nitta H, Miura K, Ueshima H, NIPPON DATA80 Research Group, J Atheroscler Thromb 2012 19 246 254 10.5551/jat.9506 22075540
38. Long-term exposure to urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of more than a million adults in Rome. Cesaroni G, Badaloni C, Gariazzo C, Stafoggia M, Sozzi R, Davoli M, Forastiere F, Environ Health Perspect 2013 121 324 331 10.1289/ehp.1205862 23308401
39. Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Pope CA 3rd, Burnett RT, Thurston GD, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Godleski JJ, Circulation 2004 109 71 77 14676145
40. Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants related to mortality in nonsmokers. Abbey DE, Nishino N, McDonnell WF, Burchette RJ, Knutsen SF, Lawrence BW, Yang JX, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999 159 373 382 10.1164/ajrccm.159.2.9806020 9927346
41. The association between fatal coronary heart disease and ambient particulate air pollution: Are females at greater risk? Chen LH, Knutsen SF, Shavlik D, Beeson WL, Petersen F, Ghamsary M, Abbey D, Environ Health Perspect 2005 113 1723 1729 10.1289/ehp.8190 16330354
42. Twenty five year mortality and air pollution: results from the French PAARC survey. Filleul L, Rondeau V, Vandentorren S, Le Moual N, Cantagrel A, Annesi-Maesano I, Charpin D, Declercq C, Neukirch F, Paris C, Vervloet D, Brochard P, Tessier JF, Kauffmann F, Baldi I, Occup Environ Med 2005 62 453 460 10.1136/oem.2004.014746 15961621
43. Extended follow-up and spatial analysis of the American cancer society study linking particulate air pollution and mortality. Krewski D, Jerrett M, Burnett RT, Ma R, Hughes E, Shi Y, Turner MC, Pope CA, Thurston G, Calle EE, Thun MJ, Beckerman B, DeLuca P, Finkelstein N, Ito K, Moore DK, Newbold KB, Ramsay T, Ross Z, Shin H, Tempalski B, Res Rep Health Eff Inst 2009 140 5 114 discussion 115-36 19627030
44. Modification of the interleukin-6 response to air pollution by interleukin-6 and fibrinogen polymorphisms. Ljungman P, Bellander T, Schneider A, Breitner S, Forastiera F, Hampel R, Illig T, Jacquemin B, Katsouyanni K, von Klot S, Koenig W, Lanki T, Nyberg F, Pekkanen J, Pistelli R, Pitsavos C, Rosenqvist M, Sunyer J, Peters A, Environ Health Perspect 2009 117 1373 1379 19750100
45. Fibrinogen genes modify the fibrinogen response to ambient particulate matter. Peters A, Greven S, Heid IM, Baldari F, Breitner S, Bellander T, Chrysohoou C, Illig T, Jacquemin B, Koenig W, Lanki T, Nyberg F, Pekkanen J, Pistelli R, Rückerl R, Stefanadis C, Schneider A, Sunyer J, Wichmann HE, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009 179 484 491 10.1164/rccm.200805-751OC 19136375
46. Air conditioning and source-specific particles as modifiers of the effect of PM(10) on hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. Janssen NA, Schwartz J, Zanobetti A, Suh HH, Environ Health Perspect 2002 110 43 49 10.1289/ehp.02110s143 11834462
47. Comparing universal kriging and land-use regression for predicting concentrations of gaseous oxides of nitrogen (NOx) for the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution (MESA Air). Mercer LD, Szpiro AA, Sheppard L, Lindström J, Adar SD, Allen RW, Avol EL, Oron AP, Larson T, Liu L-S, Kaufman JD, Atmos Environ 2011 45 4412 4420 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.043 21808599
48. Approach to estimating participant pollutant exposures in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution (MESA Air). Cohen MA, Adar SD, Allen RW, Avol E, Curl CL, Gould T, Hardie D, Ho A, Kinney P, Larson TV, Sampson P, Sheppard L, Stukovsky KD, Swan SS, Liu L-S, Kaufman JD, Environ Sci Technol 2009 43 4687 4693 10.1021/es8030837 19673252
49. Validity of residential traffic intensity as an estimate of long-term personal exposure to traffic-related air pollution among adults. Van Roosbroeck S, Hoek G, Meliefste K, Janssen NA, Brunekreef B, Environ Sci Technol 2008 42 1337 1344 10.1021/es0712827 18351114
50. Confounding and effect modification in the short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality: results from 29 European cities within the APHEA2 project. Katsouyanni K, Touloumi G, Samoli E, Gryparis A, Le Tertre A, Monopolis Y, Rossi G, Zmirou D, Ballester F, Boumghar A, Anderson HR, Wojtyniak B, Paldy A, Braunstein R, Pekkanen J, Schindler C, Schwartz J, Epidemiology 2001 12 521 531 10.1097/00001648-200109000-00011 11505171
51. Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. Laden F, Neas LM, Dockery DW, Schwartz J, Environ Health Perspect 2000 108 941 947 10.1289/ehp.00108941 11049813
52. Can we identify sources of fine particles responsible for exercise-induced ischemia on days with elevated air pollution? The ULTRA study. Lanki T, de Hartog JJ, Heinrich J, Hoek G, Janssen NA, Peters A, Stolzel M, Timonen KL, Vallius M, Vanninen E, Pekkanen J, Environ Health Perspect 2006 114 655 660 10.1289/ehp.8578 16675416
53. Hospital admissions and chemical composition of fine particle air pollution. Bell ML, Ebisu K, Peng RD, Samet JM, Dominici F, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009 179 1115 1120 10.1164/rccm.200808-1240OC 19299499
54. Particulate air pollution and survival in a COPD cohort. Zanobetti A, Bind MA, Schwartz J, Environ Health 2008 7 48 10.1186/1476-069X-7-48 18847462
55. Particulate air pollution, progression, and survival after myocardial infarction. Zanobetti A, Schwartz J, Environ Health Perspect 2007 115 769 775 10.1289/ehp.9201 17520066
56. Nitrogen dioxide levels estimated from land use regression models several years apart and association with mortality in a large cohort study. Cesaroni G, Porta D, Badaloni C, Stafoggia M, Eeftens M, Meliefste K, Forastiere F, Environ Health 2012 11 48 10.1186/1476-069X-11-48 22808928
57. Stability of measured and modelled spatial contrasts in NO2 over time. Eeftens M, Beelen R, Fischer P, Brunekreef B, Meliefste K, Hoek G, Occup Environ Med 2011 68 765 770 10.1136/oem.2010.061135 21285243
58. Temporal stability of land use regression models for traffic-related air pollution. Wang R, Henderson SB, Sbihi H, Allen RW, Brauer M, Atmos Environ 2013 64 312 319
59. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and respiratory disease mortality in Shenyang, China: a 12-year population-based retrospective cohort study. Dong GH, Zhang P, Sun B, Zhang L, Chen X, Ma N, Yu F, Guo H, Huang H, Lee YL, Tang N, Chen J, Respiration 2012 84 360 368 10.1159/000332930 22116521
60. The joint association of air pollution and noise from road traffic with cardiovascular mortality in a cohort study. Beelen R, Hoek G, Houthuijs D, van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, Fischer P, Schouten LJ, Armstrong B, Brunekreef B, Occup Environ Med 2009 66 243 250 19017691
61. Long-term exposure to road traffic noise and myocardial infarction. Selander J, Nilsson ME, Bluhm G, Rosenlund M, Lindqvist M, Nise G, Pershagen G, Epidemiology 2009 20 272 279 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31819463bd 19116496
62. Association of long-term exposure to community noise and traffic-related air pollution with coronary heart disease mortality. Gan WQ, Davies HW, Koehoorn M, Brauer M, Am J Epidemiol 2012 175 898 906 10.1093/aje/kwr424 22491084
63. Relationships of mortality with the fine and coarse fractions of long-term ambient PM10 concentrations in nonsmokers. McDonnell WF, Nishino-Ishikawa N, Petersen FF, Chen LH, Abbey DE, J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2000 10 427 436 10.1038/sj.jea.7500095 11051533
64. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants. Smith KR, Jerrett M, Anderson HR, Burnett RT, Stone V, Derwent R, Atkinson RW, Cohen A, Shonkoff SB, Krewski D, Pope CA 3rd, Thun MJ, Thurston G, Lancet 2009 374 2091 2103 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61716-5 19942276
65. Elemental carbon exposure at residence and survival after acute myocardial infarction. von Klot S, Gryparis A, Tonne C, Yanosky J, Coull BA, Goldberg RJ, Lessard D, Melly SJ, Suh HH, Schwartz J, Epidemiology 2009 20 547 554 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31819d9501 19289965
66. Traffic density as a surrogate measure of environmental exposures in studies of air pollution health effects: long-term mortality in a cohort of US veterans. Lipfert F, Wyzga R, Baty J, Miller J, Atmos Environ 2006 40 154 169 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.09.027
67. A comparison of short-term and long-term air pollution exposure associations with mortality in two cohorts in Scotland. Beverland IJ, Cohen GR, Heal MR, Carder M, Yap C, Robertson C, Hart CL, Agius RM, Environ Health Perspect 2012 120 1280 1285 10.1289/ehp.1104509 22674867
68. Urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of Norwegian men. Nafstad P, Haheim LL, Wisloff T, Gram F, Oftedal B, Holme I, Hjermann I, Leren P, Environ Health Perspect 2004 112 610 615 10.1289/ehp.6684 15064169
69. Traffic air pollution and mortality from cardiovascular disease and all causes: a Danish cohort study. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Andersen ZJ, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Sorensen M, Hansen J, Loft S, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Environ Health 2012 11 60 10.1186/1476-069X-11-60 22950554
70. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and mortality in Shizuoka, Japan. Yorifuji T, Kashima S, Tsuda T, Takao S, Suzuki E, Doi H, Sugiyama M, Ishikawa-Takata K, Ohta T, Occup Environ Med 2010 67 111 117 10.1136/oem.2008.045542 19773277
71. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and cardiovascular mortality. Chen H, Goldberg MS, Burnett RT, Jerrett M, Wheeler AJ, Villeneuve PJ, Epidemiology 2013 24 35 43 10.1097/EDE.0b013e318276c005 23222554
72. Long-term exposure to urban air pollution and myocardial infarction. Rosenlund M, Berglind N, Pershagen G, Hallqvist J, Jonson T, Bellander T, Epidemiology 2006 17 383 390 10.1097/01.ede.0000219722.25569.0f 16699471
73. Traffic-related air pollution in relation to incidence and prognosis of coronary heart disease. Rosenlund M, Picciotto S, Forastiere F, Stafoggia M, Perucci CA, Epidemiology 2008 19 121 128 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31815c1921 18091421
74. Traffic-generated air pollution and myocardial infarction. Rosenlund M, Bellander T, Nordquist T, Alfredsson L, Epidemiology 2009 20 265 271 10.1097/EDE.0b013e318190ea68 19096356
75. Comparison of self-report, hospital discharge codes, and adjudication of cardiovascular events in the Women's Health Initiative. Heckbert SR, Kooperberg C, Safford MM, Psaty BM, Hsia J, McTiernan A, Gaziano JM, Frishman WH, Curb JD, Am J Epidemiol 2004 160 1152 1158 10.1093/aje/kwh314 15583367
76. Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Mills NL, Donaldson K, Hadoke PW, Boon NA, MacNee W, Cassee FR, Sandstrom T, Blomberg A, Newby DE, Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2009 6 36 44 10.1038/ncpcardio1399 19029991
77. Ambient air pollution and atherosclerosis in Los Angeles. Kunzli N, Jerrett M, Mack WJ, Beckerman B, LaBree L, Gilliland F, Thomas D, Peters J, Hodis HN, Environ Health Perspect 2005 113 201 206 15687058
78. Stroke mortality associated with living near main roads in England and Wales: a geographical study. Maheswaran R, Elliott P, Stroke 2003 34 2776 2780 10.1161/01.STR.0000101750.77547.11 14615623
79. Outdoor NOx and stroke mortality: adjusting for small area level smoking prevalence using a Bayesian approach. Maheswaran R, Haining RP, Pearson T, Law J, Brindley P, Best NG, Stat Methods Med Res 2006 15 499 516 17089951
80. Rapid effects of air pollution on ventricular arrhythmias. Ljungman PL, Berglind N, Holmgren C, Gadler F, Edvardsson N, Pershagen G, Rosenqvist M, Sjögren B, Bellander T, Eur Heart J 2008 29 2894 2901 10.1093/eurheartj/ ehn463 19004842