The multifunctional mesencephalic locomotor region

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 19, Issue 24, 2013, Pages 4448-4470

  Ryczko, Dimitri ^a,b   Dubuc, Réjean ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Acetylcholine; Cuneiform nucleus; Lamprey; Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus; Locomotion; Mesencephalic locomotor region; Parkinson's disease; Pedunculopontine nucleus

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN REGION; CUNEIFORM; ELECTROSTIMULATION; HUMAN; LAMPREY; LOCOMOTION; MESENCEPHALIC LOCOMOTOR REGION; MESENCEPHALON; MOTOR CONTROL; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PEDUNCULOPONTINE TEGMENTAL NUCLEUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SUBCUNEIFORM NUCLEI;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; LOCOMOTION; MESENCEPHALON; NEURONS; NEUROTRANSMITTER AGENTS; PARKINSON DISEASE; RHOMBENCEPHALON; SPECIES SPECIFICITY; SPINAL CORD;

EID: 84878637824     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612811319240011     Document Type: Article

References (335)

1. Grillner S, Zangger P. On the central generation of locomotion in the low spinal cat. Exp Brain Res 1979; 34:241-61.
2. Perret C, Millanvoye M, Cabelguen JM. Ascending spinal messages during fictitious locomotion in curarized cats. J Physiol (Paris) 1972; 65: Suppl 1:153A.
3. Orlovskii GN, Deliagina TG, Grillner S. Neuronal control of locomotion: from mollusc to man. New York: Oxford University Press 1999.
4. Grillner S. Neuronal networks in motion from ion channels to behaviour. An R Acad Nac Med (Madr) 2006; 123:297-8.
5. Holmes G. The Goulstonian Lectures ON SPINAL INJURIES OF WARFARE: Delivered before the Royal College of Physicians of London. Br Med J 1915; 2:815-21.
6. Kuhn RA, Macht MB. Some manifestations of reflex activity in spinal man with particular reference to the occurrence of extensor spasm. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1949; 84:43-75.
7. Calancie B, Needham-Shropshire B, Jacobs P, Willer K, Zych G, Green BA. Involuntary stepping after chronic spinal cord injury. Evidence for a central rhythm generator for locomotion in man. Brain 1994; 117 (Pt 5): 1143-59.
8. Dietz V, Colombo G, Jensen L, Baumgartner L. Locomotor capacity of spinal cord in paraplegic patients. Ann Neurol 1995; 37:574-82.
9. Forssberg H, Grillner S, Halbertsma J. The locomotion of the low spinal cat. I. Coordination within a hindlimb. Acta Physiol Scand 1980; 108:269-81.
10. Forssberg H, Grillner S, Halbertsma J, Rossignol S. The locomotion of the low spinal cat. II. Interlimb coordination. Acta Physiol Scand 1980; 108:283-95.
11. Barbeau H, Rossignol S. Recovery of locomotion after chronic spinalization in the adult cat. Brain Res 1987; 412:84-95.
12. Eidelberg E, Story JL, Meyer BL, Nystel J. Stepping by chronic spinal cats. Exp Brain Res 1980; 40:241-6.
13. Dimitrijevic MR, Gerasimenko Y, Pinter MM. Evidence for a spinal central pattern generator in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 860:360-76.
14. Harkema S, Gerasimenko Y, Hodes J, Burdick J, Angeli C, Chen Y et al. Effect of epidural stimulation of the lumbosacral spinal cord on voluntary movement, standing, and assisted stepping after motor complete paraplegia: a case study. Lancet 2011; 377:1938-47.
15. Edgerton VR, Harkema S. Epidural stimulation of the spinal cord in spinal cord injury: current status and future challenges. Expert Rev Neurother 2011; 11:1351-3.
16. Forssberg H. Ontogeny of human locomotor control. I. Infant stepping, supported locomotion and transition to independent locomotion. Exp Brain Res 1985; 57:480-93.
17. Yang JF, Stephens MJ, Vishram R. Infant stepping: a method to study the sensory control of human walking. J Physiol 1998; 507 (Pt 3):927-37.
18. Yang JF, Stephens MJ, Vishram R. Transient disturbances to one limb produce coordinated, bilateral responses during infant stepping. J Neurophysiol 1998; 79:2329-37.
19. Dominici N, Ivanenko YP, Cappellini G, d'Avella A, Mondi V, Cicchese M et al. Locomotor primitives in newborn babies and their development. Science 2011; 334:997-9.
20. Grillner S. Neuroscience. Human locomotor circuits conform. Science 2011; 334:912-3.
21. Dubuc R. Locomotor regions in the midbrain (MLR) and diencephalon (DLR). In: Binder MD, Hirokawa N, Windhorst U. Eds. Encyclopedia of neuroscience. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag GmbH 2009; pp.2167-71.
22. Shik ML, Severin FV, Orlovskii GN. [Control of walking and running by means of electric stimulation of the midbrain]. Biofizika 1966; 11:659-66.
23. Sirota MG, Di Prisco GV, Dubuc R. Stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region elicits controlled swimming in semi-intact lampreys. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12:4081-92.
24. Cabelguen JM, Bourcier-Lucas C, Dubuc R. Bimodal locomotion elicited by electrical stimulation of the midbrain in the salamander Notophthalmus viridescens. J Neurosci 2003; 23:2434-9.
25. Skinner RD, Garcia-Rill E. The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) in the rat. Brain Res 1984; 323:385-9.
26. Bernau NA, Puzdrowski RL, Leonard RB. Identification of the midbrain locomotor region and its relation to descending locomotor pathways in the Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis sabina. Brain Res 1991; 557:83-94.
27. Musienko PE, Zelenin PV, Lyalka VF, Orlovsky GN, Deliagina TG. Postural performance in decerebrated rabbit. Behav Brain Res 2008; 190:124-34.
28. Marlinsky VV, Voitenko LP. The effect of procaine injection into the medullary reticular formation on forelimb muscle activity evoked by mesencephalic locomotor region and vestibular stimulation in the decerebrated guinea-pig. Neuroscience 1991; 45:753-9.
29. Eidelberg E, Walden JG, Nguyen LH. Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. Brain 1981; 104: 647-63.
30. Le Ray D, Juvin L, Ryczko D, Dubuc R. Chapter 4--supraspinal control of locomotion: the mesencephalic locomotor region. Prog Brain Res 2011; 188:51-70.
31. Shik ML, Orlovskii GN, Severin FV. [Organization of locomotor synergism]. Biofizika 1966; 11: 879-86.
32. Shik ML, Orlovskii GN, Severin FV. [Locomotion of the mesencephalic cat evoked by pyramidal stimulation]. Biofizika 1968; 13:127-35.
33. Shik ML, Orlovsky GN. Neurophysiology of locomotor automatism. Physiol Rev 1976; 56:465-501.
34. Orlovskii GN. [Relations between reticulo-spinal neurons and locomotor regions of the brain stem]. Biofizika 1970; 15:171-8.
35. Iwakiri H, Oka T, Takakusaki K, Mori S. Stimulus effects of the medial pontine reticular formation and the mesencephalic locomotor region upon medullary reticulospinal neurons in acute decerebrate cats. Neurosci Res 1995; 23:47-53.
36. Jankowska E, Nilsson E, Hammar I. Processing information related to centrally initiated locomotor and voluntary movements by feline spinocerebellar neurones. J Physiol 2011; 589: 5709-25.
37. Steeves JD, Jordan LM. Localization of a descending pathway in the spinal cord which is necessary for controlled treadmill locomotion. Neurosci Lett 1980; 20:283-8.
38. Jordan LM. Initiation of locomotion from the mammalian brainstem. In: Grillner S, Stein PSG, Stuart DG, Forssberg H, Herman RM. Eds. Neurobiology of Vertebrate Locomotion. London: MacMillan 1986; pp.21-37.
39. Jordan LM, Liu J, Hedlund PB, Akay T, Pearson KG. Descending command systems for the initiation of locomotion in mammals. Brain Res Rev 2008; 57:183-91.
40. Sinnamon HM. Preoptic and hypothalamic neurons and the initiation of locomotion in the anesthetized rat. Prog Neurobiol 1993; 41:323-44.
41. Jordan LM. Initiation of locomotion in mammals. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998; 860:83-93.
42. Drew T, Jiang W, Widajewicz W. Contributions of the motor cortex to the control of the hindlimbs during locomotion in the cat. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 2002; 40:178-91.
43. Matsumura M, Nambu A, Yamaji Y, Watanabe K, Imai H, Inase M et al. Organization of somatic motor inputs from the frontal lobe to the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in the macaque monkey. Neuroscience 2000; 98:97-110.
44. Aravamuthan BR, McNab JA, Miller KL, Rushworth M, Jenkinson N, Stein JF et al. Cortical and subcortical connections within the pedunculopontine nucleus of the primate Macaca mulatta determined using probabilistic diffusion tractography. J Clin Neurosci 2009; 16:413-20.
45. Muthusamy KA, Aravamuthan BR, Kringelbach ML, Jenkinson N, Voets NL, Johansen-Berg H et al. Connectivity of the human pedunculopontine nucleus region and diffusion tensor imaging in surgical targeting. J Neurosurg 2007; 107:814-20.
46. Aravamuthan BR, Muthusamy KA, Stein JF, Aziz TZ, Johansen-Berg H. Topography of cortical and subcortical connections of the human pedunculopontine and subthalamic nuclei. Neuroimage 2007; 37:694-705.
47. Pombal MA, El Manira A, Grillner S. Organization of the lamprey striatum-transmitters and projections. Brain Res 1997; 766:249-54.
48. Pombal MA, El Manira A, Grillner S. Afferents of the lamprey striatum with special reference to the dopaminergic system: a combined tracing and immunohistochemical study. J Comp Neurol 1997; 386:71-91.
49. Ericsson J, Robertson B, Wikstrom MA. A lamprey striatal brain slice preparation for patch-clamp recordings. J Neurosci Methods 2007; 165:251-6.
50. Ericsson J, Silberberg G, Robertson B, Wikstrom MA, Grillner S. Striatal cellular properties conserved from lampreys to mammals. J Physiol 2011; 589:2979-92.
51. Stephenson-Jones M, Samuelsson E, Ericsson J, Robertson B, Grillner S. Evolutionary conservation of the basal ganglia as a common vertebrate mechanism for action selection. Curr Biol 2011; 21:1081-91.
52. Stephenson-Jones M, Ericsson J, Robertson B, Grillner S. Evolution of the basal ganglia: dual-output pathways conserved throughout vertebrate phylogeny. J Comp Neurol 2012; 520:2957-73.
53. Robertson B, Huerta-Ocampo I, Ericsson J, et al. The dopamine D2 receptor gene in lamprey, its expression in the striatum and cellular effects of D2 receptor activation. PLoS One 2012; 7: e35642.
54. Redgrave P, Prescott TJ, Gurney K. The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem? Neuroscience 1999; 89:1009-23.
55. Kravitz AV, Freeze BS, Parker PR, Kay K, Thwin MT, Deisseroth K et al. Regulation of parkinsonian motor behaviours by optogenetic control of basal ganglia circuitry. Nature 2010; 466:622-6.
56. Surmeier DJ, Ding J, Day M, Wang Z, Shen W. D1 and D2 dopamine-receptor modulation of striatal glutamatergic signaling in striatal medium spiny neurons. Trends Neurosci 2007; 30:228-35.
57. Thompson RH, Menard A, Pombal M, Grillner S. Forebrain dopamine depletion impairs motor behavior in lamprey. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 27:1452-60.
58. Albin RL, Young AB, Penney JB. The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends Neurosci 1989; 12:366-75.
59. Grillner S, Georgopoulos AP, Jordan LM. Selection and initiation of motor behavior. In: Stein PSG, Grillner S, Selverston AI, Stuart DG. Eds. Neurons, networks, and motor behavior. Cambridge: The MIT Press 1997; pp.3-19.
60. Korte SM, Jaarsma D, Luiten PG, Bohus B. Mesencephalic cuneiform nucleus and its ascending and descending projections serve stress-related cardiovascular responses in the rat. J Auton Nerv Syst 1992; 41:157-76.
61. Lam W, Gundlach AL, Verberne AJ. Increased nerve growth factor inducible-A gene and c-fos messenger RNA levels in the rat midbrain and hindbrain associated with the cardiovascular response to electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic cuneiform nucleus. Neuroscience 1996; 71: 193-211.
62. Dielenberg RA, Hunt GE, McGregor IS. "When a rat smells a cat": the distribution of Fos immunoreactivity in rat brain following exposure to a predatory odor. Neuroscience 2001; 104: 1085-97.
63. Hunt GE, Van Nieuwenhuijzen PS, Chan-Ling T, McGregor IS. 'When an old rat smells a cat': A decline in defense-related, but not accessory olfactory, Fos expression in aged rats. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 32:737-49.
64. Kollack-Walker S, Watson SJ, Akil H. Social stress in hamsters: defeat activates specific neurocircuits within the brain. J Neurosci 1997; 17:8842-55.
65. Crosby EC, Woodburne RT. The nuclear pattern of the non-tectal portions of the midbrain and isthmus in primates. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1943; 78:441-482.
66. Olszewski J, Baxter D. Cytoarchitecture of the human brain stem. Philadelphia and Montreal: J.B. Lippincott Company 1954.
67. Taber E. The cytoarchitecture of the brain stem of the cat. I. Brain stem nuclei of cat. J Comp Neurol 1961; 116:27-69.
68. Edwards SB. Autoradiographic studies of the projections of the midbrain reticular formation: descending projections of nucleus cuneiformis. J Comp Neurol 1975; 161:341-58.
69. Noback CR. Brain of a gorilla. II. Brain stem nuclei. J Comp Neurol 1959; 111:345-85.
70. Alam M, Schwabe K, Krauss JK. The pedunculopontine nucleus area: critical evaluation of interspecies differences relevant for its use as a target for deep brain stimulation. Brain 2011; 134: 11-23.
71. Berman AL. The brain stem of the cat: a Cytoarchitectonic Atlas with Stereotaxic Coordinates. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1968.
72. Pose I, Sampogna S, Chase MH, Morales FR. Cuneiform neurons activated during cholinergically induced active sleep in the cat. J Neurosci 2000; 20:3319-27.
73. Gioia M, Bianchi R. The cytoarchitecture of the nucleus cuneiformis. A Nissl and Golgi study. J Anat 1987; 155:165-76.
74. Jones BE, Beaudet A. Distribution of acetylcholine and catecholamine neurons in the cat brainstem: a choline acetyltransferase and tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemical study. J Comp Neurol 1987; 261:15-32.
75. Zemlan FP, Behbehani MM. Afferent projections to the nucleus cuneiformis in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1984; 52:103-9.
76. Zemlan FP, Behbehani MM. Nucleus cuneiformis and pain modulation: anatomy and behavioral pharmacology. Brain Res 1988; 453:89-102.
77. Newman DB. Distinguishing rat brainstem reticulospinal nuclei by their neuronal morphology. II. Pontine and mesencephalic nuclei. J Hirnforsch 1985; 26:385-418.
78. Canteras NS, Goto M. Connections of the precommissural nucleus. J Comp Neurol 1999; 408:23-45.
79. Beitz AJ. The organization of afferent projections to the midbrain periaqueductal gray of the rat. Neuroscience 1982; 7:133-59.
80. Appell PP, Behan M. Sources of subcortical GABAergic projections to the superior colliculus in the cat. J Comp Neurol 1990; 302:143-58.
81. Ford B, Holmes CJ, Mainville L, Jones BE. GABAergic neurons in the rat pontomesencephalic tegmentum: codistribution with cholinergic and other tegmental neurons projecting to the posterior lateral hypothalamus. J Comp Neurol 1995; 363:177-96.
82. Heise CE, Mitrofanis J. Fos immunoreactivity in some locomotor neural centres of 6OHDA-lesioned rats. Anat Embryol (Berl) 2006; 211:659-71.
83. Vincent SR, Satoh K, Armstrong DM, Panula P, Vale W, Fibiger HC. Neuropeptides and NADPH-diaphorase activity in the ascending cholinergic reticular system of the rat. Neuroscience 1986; 17:167-82.
84. Lavoie B, Parent A. Pedunculopontine nucleus in the squirrel monkey: distribution of cholinergic and monoaminergic neurons in the mesopontine tegmentum with evidence for the presence of glutamate in cholinergic neurons. J Comp Neurol 1994; 344:190-209.
85. Beart PM, Summers RJ, Stephenson JA, Cook CJ, Christie MJ. Excitatory amino acid projections to the periaqueductal gray in the rat: a retrograde transport study utilizing D[3H]aspartate and [3H]GABA. Neuroscience 1990; 34:163-76.
86. Beitz AJ. Possible origin of glutamatergic projections to the midbrain periaqueductal gray and deep layer of the superior colliculus of the rat. Brain Res Bull 1989; 23:25-35.
87. Richter RC, Behbehani MM. Evidence for glutamic acid as a possible neurotransmitter between the mesencephalic nucleus cuneiformis and the medullary nucleus raphe magnus in the lightly anesthetized rat. Brain Res 1991; 544:279-86.
88. Spann BM, Grofova I. Cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons in the rat pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Anat Embryol (Berl) 1992; 186:215-27.
89. Kimura H, McGeer PL, Peng JH, McGeer EG. The central cholinergic system studied by choline acetyltransferase immunohistochemistry in the cat. J Comp Neurol 1981; 200:151-201.
90. Armstrong DM, Saper CB, Levey AI, Wainer BH, Terry RD. Distribution of cholinergic neurons in rat brain: demonstrated by the immunocytochemical localization of choline acetyltransferase. J Comp Neurol 1983; 216:53-68.
91. Jones BE. Paradoxical sleep and its chemical/structural substrates in the brain. Neuroscience 1991; 40:637-56.
92. Smith Y, Parent A. Distribution of acetylcholinesterase-containing neurons in the basal forebrain and upper brainstem of the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Brain Res Bull 1984; 12:95-104.
93. Mesulam MM. Structure and Function of Cholinergic Pathways in the Cerebral Cortex, Limbic System, Basal Ganglia, and Thalamus of the Human Brain. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ. Eds. Psychopharmacology. The Fourth Generation of Progress. New York: Raven press 1995; pp135-146.
94. Cuadrado I, Covenas R, Aguilar LA, Aguirre JA, Rioja J, Narvaez JA. Mapping of neurokinin b in the cat brainstem. Anat Embryol (Berl) 2005; 210:133-43.
95. Sar M, Stumpf WE, Miller RJ, Chang KJ, Cuatrecasas P. Immunohistochemical localization of enkephalin in rat brain and spinal cord. J Comp Neurol 1978; 182:17-37.
96. Beitz AJ. The nuclei of origin of brain stem enkephalin and substance P projections to the rodent nucleus raphe magnus. Neuroscience 1982; 7:2753-68.
97. Moss MS, Glazer EJ, Basbaum AI. The peptidergic organization of the cat periaqueductal gray. I. The distribution of immunoreactive enkephalin-containing neurons and terminals. J Neurosci 1983; 3:603-16.
98. Beitz AJ. The sites of origin brain stem neurotensin and serotonin projections to the rodent nucleus raphe magnus. J Neurosci 1982; 2:829-42.
99. Sakanaka M, Shibasaki T, Lederis K. Corticotropin releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in the rat brain as revealed by a modified cobalt-glucose oxidase-diaminobenzidine method. J Comp Neurol 1987; 260:256-98.
100. Abols IA, Basbaum AI. Afferent connections of the rostral medulla of the cat: a neural substrate for midbrain-medullary interactions in the modulation of pain. J Comp Neurol 1981; 201:285-97.
101. Chung JM, Kevetter GA, Yezierski RP, Haber LH, Martin RF, Willis WD. Midbrain nuclei projecting to the medial medulla oblongata in the monkey. J Comp Neurol 1983; 214:93-102.
102. Steeves JD, Jordan LM. Autoradiographic demonstration of the projections from the mesencephalic locomotor region. Brain Res 1984; 307:263-76.
103. Bernard JF, Peschanski M, Besson JM. Afferents and efferents of the rat cuneiformis nucleus: an anatomical study with reference to pain transmission. Brain Res 1989; 490:181-5.
104. Castiglioni AJ, Gallaway MC, Coulter JD. Spinal projections from the midbrain in monkey. J Comp Neurol 1978; 178:329-46.
105. Mori S, Sakamoto T, Ohta Y, Takakusaki K, Matsuyama K. Sitespecific postural and locomotor changes evoked in awake, freely moving intact cats by stimulating the brainstem. Brain Res 1989; 505:66-74.
106. Depoortere R, Sandner G, Di Scala G. Aversion induced by electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region in the intact and freely moving rat. Physiol Behav 1990; 47:561-7.
107. Mitchell IJ, Dean P, Redgrave P. The projection from superior colliculus to cuneiform area in the rat. II. Defence-like responses to stimulation with glutamate in cuneiform nucleus and surrounding structures. Exp Brain Res 1988; 72:626-39.
108. Mitchell IJ, Redgrave P, Dean P. Plasticity of behavioural response to repeated injection of glutamate in cuneiform area of rat. Brain Res 1988; 460:394-7.
109. Kafkafi N, Pagis M, Lipkind D, Mayo CL, Bemjamini Y, Golani I et al. Darting behavior: a quantitative movement pattern designed for discrimination and replicability in mouse locomotor behavior. Behav Brain Res 2003; 142:193-205.
110. Sterman MB, Fairchild MD. Modification of locomotor performance by reticular formation and basal forebrain stimulation in the cat: evidence for reciprocal systems. Brain Res 1966; 2:205-17.
111. Takahashi K, Nishimura H, Wada N, Tokuriki M. Rhythmical discharges recorded from cervical and trunk muscle nerves produced by stimulation of mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) in the decerebrated cat. J Vet Med Sci 1997; 59:951-2.
112. Takahashi K, Wada N, Tokuriki M. Effects of the lateral vestibulospinal tract on rhythmic discharges induced by stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) in the decerebrated cat. J Vet Med Sci 1998; 60:139-41.
113. Lam W, Gundlach AL, Verberne AJ. Neuronal activation in the forebrain following electrical stimulation of the cuneiform nucleus in the rat: hypothalamic expression of c-fos and NGFI-A messenger RNA. Neuroscience 1997; 78:1069-85.
114. Verberne AJ. Cuneiform nucleus stimulation produces activation of medullary sympathoexcitatory neurons in rats. Am J Physiol 1995; 268:R752-8.
115. Lam W, Verberne AJ. Cuneiform nucleus stimulation-induced sympathoexcitation: role of adrenoceptors, excitatory amino acid and serotonin receptors in rat spinal cord. Brain Res 1997; 757:191-201.
116. Shafei MN, Nasimi A. Effect of glutamate stimulation of the cuneiform nucleus on cardiovascular regulation in anesthetized rats: role of the pontine Kolliker-Fuse nucleus. Brain Res 2011; 1385: 135-43.
117. Kawahara K, Kumagai S, Nakazono Y, Miyamoto Y. Coupling between respiratory and stepping rhythms during locomotion in decerebrate cats. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:110-5.
118. DiMarco AF, Romaniuk JR, Von Euler C, Yamamoto Y. Immediate changes in ventilation and respiratory pattern associated with onset and cessation of locomotion in the cat. J Physiol 1983; 343:1-16.
119. Eldridge FL, Millhorn DE, Waldrop TG. Exercise hyperpnea and locomotion: parallel activation from the hypothalamus. Science 1981; 211:844-6.
120. Gariépy JF, Missaghi K, Chevallier S, Chartré S, Robert M, Auclair F et al. Specific neural substrate linking respiration to locomotion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:E84-92.
121. Gaytán SP, Pásaro R. Connections of the rostral ventral respiratory neuronal cell group: an anterograde and retrograde tracing study in the rat. Brain Res Bull 1998; 47:625-42.
122. Behbehani MM, Zemlan FP. Response of nucleus raphe magnus neurons to electrical stimulation of nucleus cuneiformis: role of acetylcholine. Brain Res 1986; 369:110-8.
123. Haghparast A, Gheitasi IP, Lashgari R. Involvement of glutamatergic receptors in the nucleus cuneiformis in modulating morphine-induced antinociception in rats. Eur J Pain 2007; 11:855-62.
124. Haghparast A, Soltani-Hekmat A, Khani A, Komaki A. Role of glutamatergic receptors located in the nucleus raphe magnus on antinociceptive effect of morphine microinjected into the nucleus cuneiformis of rat. Neurosci Lett 2007; 427:44-9.
125. Haghparast A, Ahmad-Molaei L, Alizadeh AM, Azizi P. Blockade of Opioid Receptors Located in the Rat Nucleus Cuneiformis Reduced the Antinociceptive Responses of Local But not Systemic Administration of Morphine in Formalin Test. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience 2010; 2:13-19.
126. Bentley AJ, Newton S, Zio CD. Sensitivity of sleep stages to painful thermal stimuli. J Sleep Res 2003; 12:143-7.
127. Allen LF, Inglis WL, Winn P. Is the cuneiform nucleus a critical component of the mesencephalic locomotor region? An examination of the effects of excitotoxic lesions of the cuneiform nucleus on spontaneous and nucleus accumbens induced locomotion. Brain Res Bull 1996; 41:201-10.
128. Parker SM, Sinnamon HM. Forward locomotion elicited by electrical stimulation in the diencephalon and mesencephalon of the awake rat. Physiol Behav 1983; 31:581-7.
129. Milner KL, Mogenson GJ. Electrical and chemical activation of the mesencephalic and subthalamic locomotor regions in freely moving rats. Brain Res 1988; 452:273-85.
130. El Manira A, Pombal MA, Grillner S. Diencephalic projection to reticulospinal neurons involved in the initiation of locomotion in adult lampreys Lampetra fluviatilis. J Comp Neurol 1997; 389: 603-16.
131. Ménard A, Grillner S. Diencephalic locomotor region in the lamprey--afferents and efferent control. J Neurophysiol 2008; 100:1343-53.
132. Mori S, Matsui T, Kuze B, Asanome M, Nakajima K, Matsuyama K. Stimulation of a restricted region in the midline cerebellar white matter evokes coordinated quadrupedal locomotion in the decerebrate cat. J Neurophysiol 1999; 82:290-300.
133. Watanabe K, Kawana E. The cells of origin of the incertofugal projections to the tectum, thalamus, tegmentum and spinal cord in the rat: a study using the autoradiographic and horseradish peroxidase methods. Neuroscience 1982; 7:2389-2406.
134. Borelli KG, Ferreira-Netto C, Brandao ML. Distribution of Fos immunoreactivity in the rat brain after freezing or escape elicited by inhibition of glutamic acid decarboxylase or antagonism of GABA-A receptors in the inferior colliculus. Behav Brain Res 2006; 170:84-93.
135. Lamprea MR, Cardenas FP, Vianna DM, Castilho VM, Cruz-Morales SE, Brandao ML. The distribution of fos immunoreactivity in rat brain following freezing and escape responses elicited by electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus. Brain Res 2002; 950:186-94.
136. Sandner G, Di Scala G, Rocha B, Angst MJ. C-fos immunoreactivity in the brain following unilateral electrical stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray in freely moving rats. Brain Res 1992; 573:276-83.
137. Sandner G, Oberling P, Silveira MC, Di Scala G, Rocha B, Bagri A et al. What brain structures are active during emotions? Effects of brain stimulation elicited aversion on c-fos immunoreactivity and behavior. Behav Brain Res 1993; 58:9-18.
138. Silveira MC, Sandner G, Di Scala G, Graeff FG. c-fos immunoreactivity in the brain following electrical or chemical stimulation of the medial hypothalamus of freely moving rats. Brain Res 1995; 674:265-74.
139. Cameron AA, Khan IA, Westlund KN, Willis WD. The efferent projections of the periaqueductal gray in the rat: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study. II. Descending projections. J Comp Neurol 1995; 351:585-601.
140. Borelli KG, Ferreira-Netto C, Coimbra NC, Brandao ML. Fos-like immunoreactivity in the brain associated with freezing or escape induced by inhibition of either glutamic acid decarboxylase or GABAA receptors in the dorsal periaqueductal gray. Brain Res 2005; 1051:100-11.
141. Brandao ML, Anseloni VZ, Pandossio JE, De Araujo JE, Castilho VM. Neurochemical mechanisms of the defensive behavior in the dorsal midbrain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1999; 23: 863-75.
142. Haghparast A, Ordikhani-Seyedlar M, Ziaei M. Electrolytic lesion of the nucleus raphe magnus reduced the antinociceptive effects of bilateral morphine microinjected into the nucleus cuneiformis in rats. Neurosci Lett 2008; 438:351-5.
143. Redgrave P, Dean P, Mitchell IJ, Odekunle A, Clark A. The projection from superior colliculus to cuneiform area in the rat. I. Anatomical studies. Exp Brain Res 1988; 72:611-25.
144. Holstege G, Collewijn H. The efferent connections of the nucleus of the optic tract and the superior colliculus in the rabbit. J Comp Neurol 1982; 209:139-75.
145. Graham J. An autoradiographic study of the efferent connections of the superior colliculus in the cat. J Comp Neurol 1977; 173:629-54.
146. Harting JK. Descending pathways from the superior collicullus: an autoradiographic analysis in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). J Comp Neurol 1977; 173:583-612.
147. Vaudano E, Legg CR. Cerebellar connections of the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus in the rat. Anat Embryol (Berl) 1992; 186:583-8.
148. Sesack SR, Deutch AY, Roth RH, Bunney BS. Topographical organization of the efferent projections of the medial prefrontal cortex in the rat: an anterograde tract-tracing study with Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin. J Comp Neurol 1989; 290:213-42.
149. Moss MS, Basbaum AI. The peptidergic organization of the cat periaqueductal gray. II. The distribution of immunoreactive substance P and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. J Neurosci 1983; 3:1437-49.
150. Mesulam MM, Mufson EJ, Wainer BH, Levey AI. Central cholinergic pathways in the rat: an overview based on an alternative nomenclature (Ch1-Ch6). Neuroscience 1983; 10:1185-201.
151. Garcia-Rill E, Houser CR, Skinner RD, Smith W, Woodward DJ. Locomotion-inducing sites in the vicinity of the pedunculopontine nucleus. Brain Res Bull 1987; 18:731-8.
152. Garcia-Rill E. The basal ganglia and the locomotor regions. Brain Res 1986; 396:47-63.
153. Edley SM, Graybiel AM. The afferent and efferent connections of the feline nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus, pars compacta. J Comp Neurol 1983; 217:187-215.
154. Inglis WL, Winn P. The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: where the striatum meets the reticular formation. Prog Neurobiol 1995; 47:1-29.
155. Pahapill PA, Lozano AM. The pedunculopontine nucleus and Parkinson's disease. Brain 2000; 123 (Pt 9):1767-83.
156. Martinez-Gonzalez C, Bolam JP, Mena-Segovia J. Topographical organization of the pedunculopontine nucleus. Front Neuroanat 2011; 5:22.
157. Aziz TZ, Davies L, Stein J, France S. The role of descending basal ganglia connections to the brain stem in parkinsonian akinesia. Br J Neurosurg 1998; 12:245-9.
158. Karachi C, Grabli D, Bernard FA, Tandé D, Wattiez N, Belaid H et al. Cholinergic mesencephalic neurons are involved in gait and postural disorders in Parkinson disease. J Clin Invest 2010; 120: 2745-54.
159. Mazzone P, Insola A, Valeriani M, Caliandro P, Sposato S, Scarnati E. Is urinary incontinence a true consequence of deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in Parkinson's disease? Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2012; 154:831-4; author reply 839-41.
160. Jones BE. Immunohistochemical study of choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive processes and cells innervating the pontomedullary reticular formation in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1990; 295:485-514.
161. Lavezzi HN, Parsley KP, Zahm DS. Mesopontine rostromedial tegmental nucleus neurons projecting to the dorsal raphe and pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: psychostimulant-elicited Fos expression and collateralization. Brain Struct Funct 2012; 217:719-34.
162. Rye DB, Saper CB, Lee HJ, Wainer BH. Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus of the rat: cytoarchitecture, cytochemistry, and some extrapyramidal connections of the mesopontine tegmentum. J Comp Neurol 1987; 259:483-528.
163. Mesulam MM, Geula C, Bothwell MA, Hersh LB. Human reticular formation: cholinergic neurons of the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei and some cytochemical comparisons to forebrain cholinergic neurons. J Comp Neurol 1989; 283:611-33.
164. Poirier LJ, Parent A, Marchand R, Butcher LL. Morphological characteristics of the acetylcholinesterase-containing neurons in the CNS of DFP-treated monkeys. J Neurol Sci 1977; 31:181-98.
165. Wang HL, Morales M. Pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei contain distinct populations of cholinergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2009; 29:340-58.
166. Mena-Segovia J, Micklem BR, Nair-Roberts RG, Ungless MA, Bolam JP. GABAergic neuron distribution in the pedunculopontine nucleus defines functional subterritories. J Comp Neurol 2009; 515:397-408.
167. Martinez-Gonzalez C, Wang HL, Micklem BR, Bolam JP, Mena-Segovia J. Subpopulations of cholinergic, GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus contain calcium-binding proteins and are heterogeneously distributed. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 35:723-34.
168. Steininger TL, Wainer BH, Rye DB. Ultrastructural study of cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons in the pars compacta of the rat pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. J Comp Neurol 1997; 382:285-301.
169. Takakusaki K, Shiroyama T, Yamamoto T, Kitai ST. Cholinergic and noncholinergic tegmental pedunculopontine projection neurons in rats revealed by intracellular labeling. J Comp Neurol 1996; 371:345-61.
170. Clements JR, Grant S. Glutamate-like immunoreactivity in neurons of the laterodorsal tegmental and pedunculopontine nuclei in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1990; 120:70-3.
171. Lavoie B, Parent A. Pedunculopontine nucleus in the squirrel monkey: cholinergic and glutamatergic projections to the substantia nigra. J Comp Neurol 1994; 344:232-41.
172. Jia HG, Yamuy J, Sampogna S, Morales FR, Chase MH. Colocalization of gamma-aminobutyric acid and acetylcholine in neurons in the laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei in the cat: a light and electron microscopic study. Brain Res 2003; 992:205-19.
173. Le Ray D, Brocard F, Bourcier-Lucas C, Auclair F, Lafaille P, Dubuc R. Nicotinic activation of reticulospinal cells involved in the control of swimming in lampreys. Eur J Neurosci 2003; 17: 137-48.
174. Mesulam MM, Mufson EJ, Levey AI, Wainer BH. Atlas of cholinergic neurons in the forebrain and upper brainstem of the macaque based on monoclonal choline acetyltransferase immunohistochemistry and acetylcholinesterase histochemistry. Neuroscience 1984; 12:669-86.
175. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD. The basal ganglia and the mesencephalic locomotor region. In: Grillner S, Stein PSG, Stuart DG, Forssberg H, Herman RM. Eds. Neurobiology of Vertebrate Locomotion. London: Macmillan 1986; pp.77-103.
176. Woolf NJ, Butcher LL. Cholinergic systems in the rat brain: III. Projections from the pontomesencephalic tegmentum to the thalamus, tectum, basal ganglia, and basal forebrain. Brain Res Bull 1986; 16:603-37.
177. Woolf NJ, Butcher LL. Cholinergic systems in the rat brain: IV. Descending projections of the pontomesencephalic tegmentum. Brain Res Bull 1989; 23:519-40.
178. Mitani A, Ito K, Hallanger AE, Wainer BH, Kataoka K, McCarley RW. Cholinergic projections from the laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei to the pontine gigantocellular tegmental field in the cat. Brain Res 1988; 451:397-402.
179. Lydic R, Baghdoyan HA. Pedunculopontine stimulation alters respiration and increases ACh release in the pontine reticular formation. Am J Physiol 1993; 264:R544-54.
180. Nakamura Y, Kudo M, Tokuno H. Monosynaptic projection from the pedunculopontine tegmental nuclear region to the reticulospinal neurons of the medulla oblongata. An electron microscope study in the cat. Brain Res 1990; 524:353-6.
181. Lai YY, Clements JR, Wu XY, Shalita T, Wu JP, Kuo JS et al. Brainstem projections to the ventromedial medulla in cat: retrograde transport horseradish peroxidase and immunohistochemical studies. J Comp Neurol 1999; 408:419-36.
182. Hallanger AE, Levey AI, Lee HJ, Rye DB, Wainer BH. The origins of cholinergic and other subcortical afferents to the thalamus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1987; 262:105-24.
183. Grofova I, Keane S. Descending brainstem projections of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in the rat. Anat Embryol (Berl) 1991; 184:275-90.
184. Rye DB, Lee HJ, Saper CB, Wainer BH. Medullary and spinal efferents of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and adjacent mesopontine tegmentum in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1988; 269: 315-41.
185. Spann BM, Grofova I. Origin of ascending and spinal pathways from the nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1989; 283:13-27.
186. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD, Miyazato H, Homma Y. Pedunculopontine stimulation induces prolonged activation of pontine reticular neurons. Neuroscience 2001; 104:455-65.
187. Homma Y, Skinner RD, Garcia-Rill E. Effects of pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) stimulation on caudal pontine reticular formation (PnC) neurons in vitro. J Neurophysiol 2002; 87:3033-47.
188. Coles SK, Iles JF, Nicolopoulos-Stournaras S. The mesencephalic centre controlling locomotion in the rat. Neuroscience 1989; 28:149-57.
189. Winn P. How best to consider the structure and function of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: evidence from animal studies. J Neurol Sci 2006; 248:234-50.
190. Inglis WL, Allen LF, Whitelaw RB, Latimer MP, Brace HM, Winn P. An investigation into the role of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in the mediation of locomotion and orofacial stereotypy induced by d-amphetamine and apomorphine in the rat. Neuroscience 1994; 58:817-33.
191. Inglis WL, Dunbar JS, Winn P. Outflow from the nucleus accumbens to the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: a dissociation between locomotor activity and the acquisition of responding for conditioned reinforcement stimulated by damphetamine. Neuroscience 1994; 62:51-64.
192. Swerdlow NR, Koob GF. Lesions of the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus, medial prefrontal cortex and pedunculopontine nucleus: effects on locomotor activity mediated by nucleus accumbensventral pallidal circuitry. Brain Res 1987; 412:233-43.
193. Steiniger B, Kretschmer BD. Effects of ibotenate pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus lesions on exploratory behaviour in the open field. Behav Brain Res 2004; 151:17-23.
194. Dellu F, Mayo W, Cherkaoui J, Le Moal M, Simon H. Learning disturbances following excitotoxic lesion of cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus in the rat. Brain Res 1991; 544:126-32.
195. Keating GL, Winn P. Examination of the role of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in radial maze tasks with or without a delay. Neuroscience 2002; 112:687-96.
196. Taylor CL, Kozak R, Latimer MP, Winn P. Effects of changing reward on performance of the delayed spatial win-shift radial maze task in pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus lesioned rats. Behav Brain Res 2004; 153:431-8.
197. Brudzyński SM, Wu M, Mogenson GJ. Decreases in rat locomotor activity as a result of changes in synaptic transmission to neurons within the mesencephalic locomotor region. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1993; 71:394-406.
198. Brudzyński SM, Mogenson GJ. Association of the mesencephalic locomotor region with locomotor activity induced by injections of amphetamine into the nucleus accumbens. Brain Res 1985; 334:77-84.
199. Olmstead MC, Franklin KB. Lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus block drug-induced reinforcement but not amphetamine-induced locomotion. Brain Res 1994; 638:29-35.
200. Munro-Davies LE, Winter J, Aziz TZ, Stein JF. The role of the pedunculopontine region in basal-ganglia mechanisms of akinesia. Exp Brain Res 1999; 129:511-7.
201. Breit S, Bouali-Benazzouz R, Benabid AL, Benazzouz A. Unilateral lesion of the nigrostriatal pathway induces an increase of neuronal activity of the pedunculopontine nucleus, which is reversed by the lesion of the subthalamic nucleus in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2001; 14:1833-42.
202. Takakusaki K, Shiroyama T, Kitai ST. Two types of cholinergic neurons in the rat tegmental pedunculopontine nucleus: electrophysiological and morphological characterization. Neuroscience 1997; 79:1089-109.
203. Weinberger M, Hamani C, Hutchison WD, Moro E, Lozano AM, Dostrovsky JO. Pedunculopontine nucleus microelectrode recordings in movement disorder patients. Exp Brain Res 2008; 188:165-74.
204. Mena-Segovia J, Sims HM, Magill PJ, Bolam JP. Cholinergic brainstem neurons modulate cortical gamma activity during slow oscillations. J Physiol 2008; 586:2947-60.
205. Steriade M, Datta S, Pare D, Oakson G, Curro Dossi RC. Neuronal activities in brain-stem cholinergic nuclei related to tonic activation processes in thalamocortical systems. J Neurosci 1990; 10:2541-59.
206. Ros H, Magill PJ, Moss J, Bolam JP, Mena-Segovia J. Distinct types of non-cholinergic pedunculopontine neurons are differentially modulated during global brain states. Neuroscience 2010; 170:78-91.
207. Shiromani PJ, Kilduff TS, Bloom FE, McCarley RW. Cholinergically induced REM sleep triggers Fos-like immunoreactivity in dorsolateral pontine regions associated with REM sleep. Brain Res 1992; 580:351-7.
208. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. Time course of Fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. J Neurosci 1995; 15:3500-8.
209. Rye DB. Contributions of the pedunculopontine region to normal and altered REM sleep. Sleep 1997; 20:757-88.
210. Garcia-Rill E, Simon C, Smith K, Kezunovic N, Hyde J. The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: from basic neuroscience to neurosurgical applications: arousal from slices to humans: implications for DBS. J Neural Transm 2011; 118:1397-407.
211. Mena-Segovia J, Bolam JP, Magill PJ. Pedunculopontine nucleus and basal ganglia: distant relatives or part of the same family? Trends Neurosci 2004; 27:585-8.
212. DeLong MR. Activity of pallidal neurons during movement. J Neurophysiol 1971; 34:414-27.
213. Beckstead RM, Domesick VB, Nauta WJ. Efferent connections of the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area in the rat. Brain Res 1979; 175:191-217.
214. Nakamura Y, Tokuno H, Moriizumi T, Kitao Y, Kudo M. Monosynaptic nigral inputs to the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus neurons which send their axons to the medial reticular formation in the medulla oblongata. An electron microscopic study in the cat. Neurosci Lett 1989; 103:145-50.
215. Spann BM, Grofova I. Nigropedunculopontine projection in the rat: an anterograde tracing study with phaseolus vulgarisleucoagglutinin (PHA-L). J Comp Neurol 1991; 311:375-88.
216. Moriizumi T, Nakamura Y, Tokuno H, Kitao Y, Kudo M. Topographic projections from the basal ganglia to the nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus pars compacta of the cat with special reference to pallidal projection. Exp Brain Res 1988; 71:298-306.
217. Semba K, Fibiger HC. Afferent connections of the laterodorsal and the pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei in the rat: a retro-and antero-grade transport and immunohistochemical study. J Comp Neurol 1992; 323:387-410.
218. Grofova I, Zhou M. Nigral innervation of cholinergic and glutamatergic cells in the rat mesopontine tegmentum: light and electron microscopic anterograde tracing and immunohistochemical studies. J Comp Neurol 1998; 395:359-79.
219. Noda T, Oka H. Nigral inputs to the pedunculopontine region: intracellular analysis. Brain Res 1984; 322:332-6.
220. Granata AR, Kitai ST. Inhibitory substantia nigra inputs to the pedunculopontine neurons. Exp Brain Res 1991; 86:459-66.
221. Kang Y, Kitai ST. Electrophysiological properties of pedunculopontine neurons and their postsynaptic responses following stimulation of substantia nigra reticulata. Brain Res 1990; 535: 79-95.
222. Saitoh K, Hattori S, Song WJ, Isa T, Takakusaki K. Nigral GABAergic inhibition upon cholinergic neurons in the rat pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Eur J Neurosci 2003; 18:879-86.
223. Scarnati E, Proia A, Di Loreto S, Pacitti C. The reciprocal electrophysiological influence between the nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus and the substantia nigra in normal and decorticated rats. Brain Res 1987; 423:116-24.
224. Nauta WJ, Mehler WR. Projections of the lentiform nucleus in the monkey. Brain Res 1966; 1:3-42.
225. Parent M, Levesque M, Parent A. Two types of projection neurons in the internal pallidum of primates: single-axon tracing and threedimensional reconstruction. J Comp Neurol 2001; 439: 162-75.
226. Shink E, Sidibe M, Smith Y. Efferent connections of the internal globus pallidus in the squirrel monkey: II. Topography and synaptic organization of pallidal efferents to the pedunculopontine nucleus. J Comp Neurol 1997; 382:348-63.
227. Moriizumi T, Hattori T. Separate neuronal populations of the rat globus pallidus projecting to the subthalamic nucleus, auditory cortex and pedunculopontine tegmental area. Neuroscience 1992; 46:701-10.
228. Jackson A, Crossman AR. Subthalamic projection to nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1981; 22:17-22.
229. Hammond C, Rouzaire-Dubois B, Feger J, Jackson A, Crossman AR. Anatomical and electrophysiological studies on the reciprocal projections between the subthalamic nucleus and nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus in the rat. Neuroscience 1983; 9:41-52.
230. Kita H, Kitai ST. Efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus in the rat: light and electron microscopic analysis with the PHA-L method. J Comp Neurol 1987; 260:435-52.
231. Takada M, Nishihama MS, Nishihama CC, Hattori T. Two separate neuronal populations of the rat subthalamic nucleus project to the basal ganglia and pedunculopontine tegmental region. Brain Res 1988; 442:72-80.
232. Jackson A, Crossman AR. Basal ganglia and other afferent projections to the peribrachial region in the rat: a study using retrograde and anterograde transport of horseradish peroxidase. Neuroscience 1981; 6:1537-49.
233. Nauta HJ, Cole M. Efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus: an autoradiographic study in monkey and cat. J Comp Neurol 1978; 180:1-16.
234. Parent A, Smith Y. Organization of efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus in the squirrel monkey as revealed by retrograde labeling methods. Brain Res 1987; 436:296-310.
235. Granata AR, Kitai ST. Intracellular analysis of excitatory subthalamic inputs to the pedunculopontine neurons. Brain Res 1989; 488:57-72.
236. Smith Y, Parent A. Neurons of the subthalamic nucleus in primates display glutamate but not GABA immunoreactivity. Brain Res 1988; 453:353-6.
237. Albin RL, Aldridge JW, Young AB, Gilman S. Feline subthalamic nucleus neurons contain glutamate-like but not GABA-like or glycine-like immunoreactivity. Brain Res 1989; 491:185-8.
238. Florio T, Scarnati E, Confalone G, Minchella D, Galati S, Stanzione P et al. High-frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus modulates the activity of pedunculopontine neurons through direct activation of excitatory fibres as well as through indirect activation of inhibitory pallidal fibres in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:1174-86.
239. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD, Fitzgerald JA. Chemical activation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. Brain Res 1985; 330:43-54.
240. Brudzynski SM, Wang D. C-Fos immunohistochemical localization of neurons in the mesencephalic locomotor region in the rat brain. Neuroscience 1996; 75:793-803.
241. Brudzynski SM, Houghton PE, Brownlee RD, Mogenson GJ. Involvement of neuronal cell bodies of the mesencephalic locomotor region in the initiation of locomotor activity of freely behaving rats. Brain Res Bull 1986; 16:377-81.
242. Nandi D, Aziz TZ, Giladi N, Winter J, Stein JF. Reversal of akinesia in experimental parkinsonism by GABA antagonist microinjections in the pedunculopontine nucleus. Brain 2002; 125:2418-30.
243. Rolland AS, Tande D, Herrero MT, Luquin MR, Vasquez-Claverie M, Karachi C et al. Evidence for a dopaminergic innervation of the pedunculopontine nucleus in monkeys, and its drastic reduction after MPTP intoxication. J Neurochem 2009; 110:1321-9.
244. Haber SN, Lynd E, Klein C, Groenewegen HJ. Topographic organization of the ventral striatal efferent projections in the rhesus monkey: an anterograde tracing study. J Comp Neurol 1990; 293:282-98.
245. Bjursten LM, Norrsell K, Norrsell U. Behavioural repertory of cats without cerebral cortex from infancy. Exp Brain Res 1976; 25:115-30.
246. Liddell EGT, Phillips EG. Pyramidal section in the cat. Brain 1944; 67:1-9.
247. Drew T. Motor cortical cell discharge during voluntary gait modification. Brain Res 1988; 457: 181-7.
248. Drew T. Motor cortical activity during voluntary gait modifications in the cat. I. Cells related to the forelimbs. J Neurophysiol 1993; 70:179-99.
249. Kably B, Drew T. Corticoreticular pathways in the cat. I. Projection patterns and collaterization. J Neurophysiol 1998; 80:389-405.
250. Kably B, Drew T. Corticoreticular pathways in the cat. II. Discharge activity of neurons in area 4 during voluntary gait modifications. J Neurophysiol 1998; 80:406-24.
251. Prentice SD, Drew T. Contributions of the reticulospinal system to the postural adjustments occurring during voluntary gait modifications. J Neurophysiol 2001; 85:679-98.
252. Drew T, Andujar JE, Lajoie K, Yakovenko S. Cortical mechanisms involved in visuomotor coordination during precision walking. Brain Res Rev 2008; 57:199-211.
253. Marigold DS, Andujar JE, Lajoie K, Drew T. Chapter 6--motor planning of locomotor adaptations on the basis of vision: the role of the posterior parietal cortex. Prog Brain Res 2011; 188:83-100.
254. Matsumura M, Watanabe K, Ohye C. Single-unit activity in the primate nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus related to voluntary arm movement. Neurosci Res 1997; 28:155-65.
255. Monakow KH, Akert K, Kunzle H. Projections of precentral and premotor cortex to the red nucleus and other midbrain areas in Macaca fascicularis. Exp Brain Res 1979; 34:91-105.
256. Kuypers HG, Lawrence DG. Cortical projections to the red nucleus and the brain stem in the Rhesus monkey. Brain Res 1967; 4:151-88.
257. Steininger TL, Rye DB, Wainer BH. Afferent projections to the cholinergic pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and adjacent midbrain extrapyramidal area in the albino rat. I. Retrograde tracing studies. J Comp Neurol 1992; 321:515-43.
258. Schofield BR, Motts SD. Projections from auditory cortex to cholinergic cells in the midbrain tegmentum of guinea pigs. Brain Res Bull 2009; 80:163-70.
259. Hazrati LN, Parent A. Projection from the deep cerebellar nuclei to the pedunculopontine nucleus in the squirrel monkey. Brain Res 1992; 585:267-71.
260. Buchanan JT, Grillner S. Newly identified 'glutamate interneurons' and their role in locomotion in the lamprey spinal cord. Science 1987; 236:312-4.
261. Ohta Y, Grillner S. Monosynaptic excitatory amino acid transmission from the posterior rhombencephalic reticular nucleus to spinal neurons involved in the control of locomotion in lamprey. J Neurophysiol 1989; 62:1079-89.
262. Brodin L, Grillner S, Dubuc R, Ohta Y, Kasicki S, Hokfelt T. Reticulospinal neurons in lamprey: transmitters, synaptic interactions and their role during locomotion. Arch Ital Biol 1988; 126:317-45.
263. Marín O, Smeets WJ, Gonzalez A. Distribution of choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity in the brain of anuran (Rana perezi, Xenopus laevis) and urodele (Pleurodeles waltl) amphibians. J Comp Neurol 1997; 382:499-534.
264. Brocard F, Ryczko D, Fenelon K, Hatem R, Gonzales D, Auclair F et al. The transformation of a unilateral locomotor command into a symmetrical bilateral activation in the brainstem. J Neurosci 2010; 30:523-33.
265. Smetana R, Juvin L, Dubuc R, Alford S. A parallel cholinergic brainstem pathway for enhancing locomotor drive. Nat Neurosci 2010; 13:731-8.
266. Brocard F, Dubuc R. Differential contribution of reticulospinal cells to the control of locomotion induced by the mesencephalic locomotor region. J Neurophysiol 2003; 90:1714-27.
267. Cruce WLR, Newman DB. Evolution of Motor Systems: The Reticulospinal Pathways. American Zoologist 1984; 24:733-753.
268. Drew T, Dubuc R, Rossignol S. Discharge patterns of reticulospinal and other reticular neurons in chronic, unrestrained cats walking on a treadmill. J Neurophysiol 1986; 55:375-401.
269. Shimamura M, Fuwa T, Kogure I. Burst discharges of pontine reticular neurons in relation to forelimb stepping of thalamic and high spinal cats. Brain Res 1985; 346:363-7.
270. Rovainen CM, Johnson PA, Roach EA, Mankovsky JA. Projections of individual axons in lamprey spinal cord determined by tracings through serial sections. J Comp Neurol 1973; 149: 193-202.
271. Skinner RD, Kinjo N, Ishikawa Y, Biedermann JA, Garcia-Rill E. Locomotor projections from the pedunculopontine nucleus to the medioventral medulla. Neuroreport 1990; 1:207-10.
272. Atsuta Y, Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD. Characteristics of electrically induced locomotion in rat in vitro brain stem-spinal cord preparation. J Neurophysiol 1990; 64:727-35.
273. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD. The mesencephalic locomotor region. I. Activation of a medullary projection site. Brain Res 1987; 411:1-12.
274. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD. The mesencephalic locomotor region. II. Projections to reticulospinal neurons. Brain Res 1987; 411:13-20.
275. Noga BR, Kriellaars DJ, Jordan LM. The effect of selective brainstem or spinal cord lesions on treadmill locomotion evoked by stimulation of the mesencephalic or pontomedullary locomotor regions. J Neurosci 1991; 11:1691-700.
276. Viana Di Prisco G, Pearlstein E, Robitaille R, Dubuc R. Role of sensory-evoked NMDA plateau potentials in the initiation of locomotion. Science 1997; 278:1122-5.
277. Viana Di Prisco G, Pearlstein E, Le Ray D, Robitaille R, Dubuc R. A cellular mechanism for the transformation of a sensory input into a motor command. J Neurosci 2000; 20:8169-76.
278. Orlovskii GN. [Work of reticulo-spinal neurons during locomotion]. Biofizika 1970; 15:728-37.
279. Noga BR, Kriellaars DJ, Brownstone RM, Jordan LM. Mechanism for activation of locomotor centers in the spinal cord by stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. J Neurophysiol 2003; 90:1464-78.
280. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD, Gilmore SA, Owings R. Connections of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) II. Afferents and efferents. Brain Res Bull 1983; 10:63-71.
281. Garcia-Rill E, Skinner RD, Conrad C, Mosley D, Campbell C. Projections of the mesencephalic locomotor region in the rat. Brain Res Bull 1986; 17:33-40.
282. Smetana RW, Alford S, Dubuc R. Muscarinic receptor activation elicits sustained, recurring depolarizations in reticulospinal neurons. J Neurophysiol 2007; 97:3181-92.
283. Clarac F. How do sensory and motor signals interact during locomotion? In: Humphrey DR, Freund HJ. Eds. Motor Control: Concepts and Issues. New York: Wiley 1991; pp.199-221.
284. Rossignol S, Dubuc R, Gossard JP. Dynamic sensorimotor interactions in locomotion. Physiol Rev 2006; 86:89-154.
285. Le Ray D, Brocard F, Dubuc R. Muscarinic modulation of the trigemino-reticular pathway in lampreys. J Neurophysiol 2004; 92:926-38.
286. Le Ray D, Juvin L, Boutin T, Auclair F, Dubuc R. A neuronal substrate for a state-dependent modulation of sensory inputs in the brainstem. Eur J Neurosci 2010; 32:53-9.
287. Gariepy JF, Missaghi K, Dubuc R. The interactions between locomotion and respiration. Prog Brain Res 2010; 187:173-88.
288. Kumar S, Hedges SB. A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. Nature 1998; 392:917-20.
289. Ménard A, Auclair F, Bourcier-Lucas C, Grillner S, Dubuc R. Descending GABAergic projections to the mesencephalic locomotor region in the lamprey Petromyzon marinus. J Comp Neurol 2007; 501:260-73.
290. Lozano AM, Lang AE, Hutchison WD, Dostrovsky JO. New developments in understanding the etiology of Parkinson's disease and in its treatment. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1998; 8:783-90.
291. Derjean D, Moussaddy A, Atallah E, St-Pierre M, Auclair F, Chang S et al. A novel neural substrate for the transformation of olfactory inputs into motor output. PLoS Biol 2010; 8: e1000567.
292. Daghfous G, Green WW, Zielinski BS, Dubuc R. Chemosensoryinduced motor behaviors in fish. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2012; 22:223-30.
293. Jahn K, Deutschlander A, Stephan T, Kalla R, Hüfner K, Wagner J et al. Supraspinal locomotor control in quadrupeds and humans. Prog Brain Res 2008; 171:353-62.
294. Piallat B, Chabardes S, Torres N, Fraix V, Goetz L, Seigneuret E et al. Gait is associated with an increase in tonic firing of the subcuneiform nucleus neurons. Neuroscience 2009; 158:1201-5.
295. Masdeu JC, Alampur U, Cavaliere R, Tavoulareas G. Astasia and gait failure with damage of the pontomesencephalic locomotor region. Ann Neurol 1994; 35:619-21.
296. Benabid AL, Pollak P, Louveau A, Henry S, de Rougemont J. Combined (thalamotomy and stimulation) stereotactic surgery of the VIM thalamic nucleus for bilateral Parkinson disease. Appl Neurophysiol 1987; 50:344-6.
297. Mazzone P, Lozano A, Stanzione P, Galati S, Scarnati E, Peppe A et al. Implantation of human pedunculopontine nucleus: a safe and clinically relevant target in Parkinson's disease. Neuroreport 2005; 16:1877-81.
298. Stefani A, Lozano AM, Peppe A, Stanzione P, Galati S, Tropepi D et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine and subthalamic nuclei in severe Parkinson's disease. Brain 2007; 130:1596-607.
299. Wilcox RA, Cole MH, Wong D, Coyne T, Silburn P, Kerr G. Pedunculopontine nucleus deep brain stimulation produces sustained improvement in primary progressive freezing of gait. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011; 82:1256-9.
300. Thevathasan W, Coyne TJ, Hyam JA, Kerr G, Jenkinson N, Aziz TZ et al. Pedunculopontine nucleus stimulation improves gait freezing in Parkinson disease. Neurosurgery 2011; 69:1248-53; discussion 1254.
301. Franzini A, Messina G, Zekaj E, Romito L, Cordella R. Improvement of hand dexterity induced by stimulation of the peduncolopontine nucleus in a patient with advanced Parkinson's disease and previous long-lasting bilateral subthalamic DBS. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2011; 153:1587-90.
302. Ferraye MU, Debu B, Fraix V, Goetz L, Ardouin C, Yelnik J et al. Effects of pedunculopontine nucleus area stimulation on gait disorders in Parkinson's disease. Brain 2010; 133:205-14.
303. Moro E, Hamani C, Poon YY, Al-Khairallah T, Dostrovsky JO, Hutchison WD et al. Unilateral pedunculopontine stimulation improves falls in Parkinson's disease. Brain 2010; 133:215-24.
304. Hamani C, Moro E, Lozano AM. The pedunculopontine nucleus as a target for deep brain stimulation. J Neural Transm 2011; 118:1461-8.
305. Aviles-Olmos I, Foltynie T, Panicker J, Cowie D, Limousin P, Hariz M et al. Urinary incontinence following deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine nucleus. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2011; 153:2357-60.
306. Arnulf I, Ferraye M, Fraix V, Benabid AL, Chabardès S, Goetz L et al. Sleep induced by stimulation in the human pedunculopontine nucleus area. Ann Neurol 2010; 67:546-9.
307. Ferraye MU, Gerardin P, Debû B, Chabardès S, Fraix V, Seigneuret E et al. Pedunculopontine nucleus stimulation induces monocular oscillopsia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009; 80:228-31.
308. Thevathasan W, Pogosyan A, Hyam JA, Jenkinson N, Foltynie T, Limousin P et al. Alpha oscillations in the pedunculopontine nucleus correlate with gait performance in parkinsonism. Brain 2012; 135:148-60.
309. Ferraye MU, Debu B, Fraix V, Krack P, Charbadès S, Seigneuret E et al. Subthalamic nucleus versus pedunculopontine nucleus stimulation in Parkinson disease: synergy or antagonism? J Neural Transm 2011; 118:1469-75.
310. Benabid AL, Torres N. New targets for DBS. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2012; 18 Suppl 1:S21-3.
311. Benabid AL, Chabardes S, Mitrofanis J, Pollak P. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8:67-81.
312. Bergman H, Wichmann T, Karmon B, DeLong MR. The primate subthalamic nucleus. II. Neuronal activity in the MPTP model of parkinsonism. J Neurophysiol 1994; 72:507-20.
313. Meissner W, Leblois A, Hansel D, Bioulac B, Gross CE, Benazzouz A et al. Subthalamic high frequency stimulation resets subthalamic firing and reduces abnormal oscillations. Brain 2005; 128:2372-82.
314. Benazzouz A, Hallett M. Mechanism of action of deep brain stimulation. Neurology 2000; 55: S13-6.
315. Bourne SK, Eckhardt CA, Sheth SA, Eskandar EN. Mechanisms of deep brain stimulation for obsessive compulsive disorder: effects upon cells and circuits. Front Integr Neurosci 2012; 6:29.
316. Simon C, Kezunovic N, Ye M, Hyde J, Hayar A, Williams DK et al. Gamma band unit activity and population responses in the pedunculopontine nucleus. J Neurophysiol 2010; 104: 463-74.
317. Jenkinson N, Nandi D, Miall RC, Stein JF, Aziz TZ. Pedunculopontine nucleus stimulation improves akinesia in a Parkinsonian monkey. Neuroreport 2004; 15:2621-4.
318. Zweig RM, Jankel WR, Hedreen JC, Mayeux R, Price DL. The pedunculopontine nucleus in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1989; 26:41-6.
319. Goetz L, Piallat B, Thibaudier Y, Montigon O, David O, Chabardes S. A non-human primate model of bipedal locomotion under restrained condition allowing gait studies and single unit brain recordings. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 204:306-17.
320. Hirsch EC, Graybiel AM, Duyckaerts C, Javoy-Agid F. Neuronal loss in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in Parkinson disease and in progressive supranuclear palsy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987; 84:5976-80.
321. Jellinger K. The pedunculopontine nucleus in Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51:540-3.
322. Zweig RM, Whitehouse PJ, Casanova MF, Walker LC, Jankel WR, Price DL. Loss of pedunculopontine neurons in progressive supranuclear palsy. Ann Neurol 1987; 22:18-25.
323. Kimura H, Maeda T. Aminergic and cholinergic systems in the dorsolateral pontine tegmentum. Brain Res Bull 1982; 9:493-9.
324. Satoh K, Fibiger HC. Cholinergic neurons of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus: efferent and afferent connections. J Comp Neurol 1986; 253:277-302.
325. Satoh K, Armstrong DM, Fibiger HC. A comparison of the distribution of central cholinergic neurons as demonstrated by acetylcholinesterase pharmacohistochemistry and choline acetyltransferase immunohistochemistry. Brain Res Bull 1983; 11:693-720.
326. Vincent SR, Satoh K, Armstrong DM, Fibiger HC. Substance P in the ascending cholinergic reticular system. Nature 1983; 306:688-91.
327. Satoh K, Fibiger HC. Distribution of central cholinergic neurons in the baboon (Papio papio). I. General morphology. J Comp Neurol 1985; 236:197-214.
328. Satoh K, Fibiger HC. Distribution of central cholinergic neurons in the baboon (Papio papio). II. A topographic atlas correlated with catecholamine neurons. J Comp Neurol 1985; 236:215-33.
329. Shiromani PJ, Armstrong DM, Gillin JC. Cholinergic neurons from the dorsolateral pons project to the medial pons: a WGA-HRP and choline acetyltransferase immunohistochemical study. Neurosci Lett 1988; 95:19-23.
330. Hayward LF, Castellanos M. Activation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray in the rat induces Fos-like immunoreactivity in select non-cholinergic mesopontine neurons. Neurosci Lett 2004; 360:5-8.
331. Comoli E, Ribeiro-Barbosa ER, Canteras NS. Predatory hunting and exposure to a live predator induce opposite patterns of Fos immunoreactivity in the PAG. Behav Brain Res 2003; 138:17-28.
332. Van Der Putt R, Dineen C, Janes D, Series H, McShane R. Effectiveness of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: diagnosis and severity as predictors of response in routine practice. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2006; 21:755-60.
333. Darreh-Shori T, Jelic V. Safety and tolerability of transdermal and oral rivastigmine in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2010; 9:167-76.
334. Weintraub D, Somogyi M, Meng X. Rivastigmine in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia: an ADAS-cog factor analysis. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2011; 26:443-9.
335. Richard IH, Justus AW, Greig NH, Marshall F, Kurlan R. Worsening of motor function and mood in a patient with Parkinson's disease after pharmacologic challenge with oral rivastigmine. Clin Neuropharmacol 2002; 25:296-9.