Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Volumn 122, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 339-352

  Michl, Louisa C ^a,d   McLaughlin, Katie A ^a   Shepherd, Kathrine ^b   Nolen Hoeksema, Susan ^c  

^a BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Depression; Internalizing symptoms; Rumination; Stress

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; CHILD; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISTRESS SYNDROME; FEMALE; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; LIFE STRESS; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PSYCHOLOGIC ASSESSMENT; PSYCHOSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; RUMINATION; SCHOOL CHILD; SELF REPORT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SYMPTOM ASSESSMENT;

EID: 84878486569     PISSN: 0021843X     EISSN: 19391846     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0031994     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Abela, J. R., Brozina, K., & Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515-527. doi:10.1023/A:1019873015594
2. Abela, J. R., & Hankin, B. L. (2011). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression during transition from early to middle adolescence: A multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 259-271. doi:10.1037/a0022796
3. Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotionregulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217-237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11 .004
4. Bagozzi, R. P., & Edwards, J. R. (1998). A general approach for representing constructs in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 45-87. doi:10.1177/109442819800100104
5. Bandalos, D. L. (2002). The effects of item parceling on goodness-of-fit and parameter estimate bias in structural equation modeling. Educational Psychology Papers and Publications, Paper 65. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/edpsychpapers/65/
6. Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N., & Oaten, M. (2006). Increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects of traits on behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1773-1801. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-6494.2006.00428.x
7. Beauregard, M., Lévesque, J., & Bourgouin, P. (2001). Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21, RC165.
8. Beck, A. T., & Beck, R. W. (1972). Screening depressed patients in family practice: A rapid technique. Postgraduate Medicine, 52, 81-85.
9. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1990). Manual for the revised Beck Anxiety Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
10. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1991). Manual for Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
11. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Carbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77-100. doi:10.1016/0272- 7358(88)90050-5
12. Blagden, J. C., & Craske, M. G. (1996). Effects of active and passive rumination and distraction: A pilot replication with anxious mood. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 243-252. doi:10.1016/0887- 6185(96)00009-6
13. Botvinick, M. M., Cohen, J. D., & Carter, C. S. (2004). Conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex: An update. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 539-546. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.10.003
14. Brown, G. W. (1993). Life events and affective disorder: Replications and limitations. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 248-259.
15. Butler, I. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). Gender differences in response to depressed mood in a college sample. Sex Roles, 30, 331-346. doi:10.1007/BF01420597
16. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York, NY: Springer- Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5887-2
17. Ciesla, J. A., Reilly, L. C., Dickson, K. S., Emanuel, A. S., & Updegraff, J. A. (2012). Dispositional mindfulness moderates the effects of stress among adolescents: Rumination as a mediator. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 760-770.
18. Coddington, D. R. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children: A study of normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205-213. doi:10.1016/0022- 3999(72)90045-1
19. Coffman, D. L., & MacCallum, R. C. (2005). Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 235-259. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr4002_4
20. Cohen, L., Burt, C., & Bjork, J. (1987). Life stress and adjustment: Effects of life events experienced by young adolescents and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 23, 583-592. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.4 .583
21. Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558 -577. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558
22. Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 275-302. doi:10.1016/0272- 7358(87)90037-7
23. Compas, B. E., & Grant, K. E. (1993, March). Stress and adolescent depressive symptoms: Underlying mechanisms and processes. Paper presented at the biannual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, LA.
24. Compas, B. E., Malcarne, V. L., & Fondacaro, K. M. (1988). Coping with stressful life events in older children and young adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 405-411. doi:10.1037/0022- 006X.56.3.405
25. Connecticut Department of Education. (2006). Strategic school profile 2005-2006: New Britain Public Schools. Hartford, CT: Author.
26. Craighead, W. E., Smucker, M. R., Craighead, L. W., & Ilardi, S. S. (1998). Factor analysis of the Children's Depression Inventory in a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 156-165.
27. Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problems of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 477-495. doi:10.1037/ 0033-2909.132.3.477
28. Donaldson, C., & Lam, D. (2004). Rumination, mood and social problem solving in major depression. Psychological Medicine, 34, 1309-1318. doi:10.1017/S0033291704001904
29. Driscoll, K. A., Lopez, C. M., & Kistner, J. A. (2009). A diathesis-stress test of response styles in children. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 1050-1070. doi:10.1521/jscp.2009.28.8.1050
30. Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003, October 10). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290-292. doi:10.1126/science.1089134
31. Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 179 -188. doi:10.1023/A: 1014517718949
32. Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., & McMahon, S. D. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412-425. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_23
33. Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555-561. doi:10.1037/ 0021-843X.100.4.555
34. Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293-319. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938
35. Hammen, C. (2008). Stress exposure and stress generation in adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema & L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 305-334). New York, NY: Routledge.
36. Hammen, C., & Goodman-Brown, T. (1990). Self-schemas and vulnerability to specific life stress in children at risk for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 215-227. doi:10.1007/BF01176210
37. Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128-140. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.128
38. Harrington, J. A., & Blankenship, V. (2002). Ruminative thoughts and their relation to depression and anxiety. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 465-485. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00225.x
39. Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Dovidio, J. (2009). How does stigma "get under the skin"? Psychological Science, 20, 1282- 1289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02441.x
40. Hilt, L. M., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). Examination of the response style theory in a community sample of young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 545-556. doi: 10.1007/s10802-009-9384-3
41. Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as ego depletion: How being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychological Science, 17, 262-269. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01695.x
42. Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33, 11-21. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2
43. Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Mitchell, K. J., Touryan, S. R., Greene, E. J., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2006). Dissociating medial frontal and posterior cingulate activity during self-reflection. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1, 56-64. doi:10.1093/scan/nsl004
44. Joormann, J. (2006). Differential effects of rumination and dysphoria on the inhibition of irrelevant emotional material: Evidence from a negative priming task. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 149-160. doi: 10.1007/s10608-006-9035-8
45. Just, N., & Alloy, L. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221-229. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.2.221
46. Kendler, K. S., Hettema, J. M., Butera, F., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (2003). Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment, and danger in the prediction of onset of major depression and generalized anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 789-796. doi:10.1001/ archpsyc.60.8.789
47. Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 837-848.
48. Kingston, T., Dooley, B., Bates, A., Lawlor, E., & Malone, K. (2007). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for residual depressive symptoms. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 80, 193-203.
49. Kishton, J. M., & Widaman, K. F. (1994). Unidimensional versus domain representative parceling of questionnaire items: An empirical example. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 757-765. doi: 10.1177/0013164494054003022
50. Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
51. Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Axelrod, B., Yun, L.-S., Holmes, A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Neural correlates of levels of emotional awareness: Evidence of an interaction between emotion and attention in the anterior cingulate cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 525- 535. doi:10.1162/089892998562924
52. Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Examining the question, weighing the evidence. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151-173. doi:10.1207/ S15328007SEM0902_1
53. Lyubomirsky, S., Kasri, F., Chang, O., & Chung, I. (2006). Ruminative response styles and delay of seeking diagnosis for breast cancer symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 276-304. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2006.25.3.276
54. Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 339-349. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.339
55. Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 176 -190. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.176
56. March, J. S., Parker, J. D. A., Sullivan, K., Stallings, P., & Conners, C. K. (1997). The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 554-565. doi:10.1097/ 00004583-199704000-00019
57. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Ruminative thoughts (pp. 1-47). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
58. Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12, 23-44. doi:10.1037/ 1082-989X.12.1.23
59. McLaughlin, K. A., Borkovec, T. D., & Sibrava, N. J. (2007). The effect of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity. Behavior Therapy, 38, 23-38. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.03.003
60. McRae, K., Reiman, E. M., Fort, C. L., Chen, K., & Lane, R. D. (2008). Association between trait emotional awareness and dorsal anterior cingulate activity during emotion is arousal-dependent. NeuroImage, 41, 648-655. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.02.030
61. Mellings, T. M. B., & Alden, L. E. (2000). Cognitive processes in social anxiety: The effects of self-focus, rumination and anticipatory processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 243-257. doi:10.1016/ S0005-7967(99)00040-6
62. Moberly, N. J., & Watkins, E. R. (2008). Ruminative self-focus, negative life events, and negative affect. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 1034-1039.
63. Monroe, S. M. (2008). Conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33-52. doi:10.1146/annurev .clinpsy.4.022007.141207
64. Moos, R. H., Cronkite, R. C., Billings, A. G., & Finney, J. W. (1986). Health and Daily Living Form manual. Social Ecology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Veterans Administration and Stanford University Medical Centers, Palo Alto, CA.
65. Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T., King, N., & Bogie, N. (2002). Three traditional and three new childhood anxiety questionnaires: Their reliability and validity in a normal adolescent sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 753-772. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00056-0
66. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). MPlus (Version 5.1). Los Angeles, CA: Author.
67. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569-582. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569
68. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 519-534. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0404_5
69. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504
70. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173-176. doi:10.1111/1467- 8721.00142
71. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Aldao, A. (2011). Gender and age differences in emotion regulation and their relation to depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 704-708. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011 .06.012
72. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Davis, C. G. (1999). "Thanks for sharing that": Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 801-814. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.801
73. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424-443. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424
74. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1061-1072. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061
75. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115
76. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20-28. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.20
77. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92-104. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.92
78. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400-424. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
79. Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 242-249. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03 .010
80. Osman, A., Kopper, B. A., Barrios, F. X., Osman, J. R., & Wade, T. (1997). The Beck Anxiety Inventory: Reexamination of factor structure and psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 7-14. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199701)53:1<7::AID-JCLP2>.0.CO; 2-S
81. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi:10.3758/ BRM.40.3.879
82. Ramel, W., Goldin, P. R., Carmona, P. E., & McQuaid, J. R. (2004). The effects of mindfulness meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 433-455. doi:10.1023/B:COTR.0000045557.15923.96
83. Raphael, K. G., Cloitre, M., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1991). Problems of recall and misclassification with checklist methods of measuring stressful life events. Health Psychology, 10, 62-74. doi:10.1037/0278-6133 .10.1.62
84. Reynolds, W. M. (1994). Assessment of depression in children and adolescents by self-report measures. In W. M. Reynolds & H. F. Johnston (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 209- 234). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
85. Robinson, M. S., & Alloy, L. B. (2003). Negative cognitive styles and stress-reactive rumination interact to predict depression: A prospective study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 275-292. doi:10.1023/A: 1023914416469
86. Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215-234. doi:10.1017/S0954579400002066
87. Scher, C. D., Ingram, R. E., & Segal, Z. V. (2005). Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: Empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 487- 510. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.01.005
88. Segal, Z. V., & Ingram, R. E. (1994). Mood priming and construct activation in tests of cognitive vulnerability to unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 663- 695. doi:10.1016/0272- 7358(94)90003-5
89. Sezibera, V., Van Broeck, N., & Philippot, P. (2009). Intervening on persistent PTSD: Rumination focused cognitive behavioral therapy (RFCBT) in a population of young survivors of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 107-113.
90. Slavich, G. M., O'Donovan, A., Epel, E. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2010). Black sheep get the blues: A psychobiological model of social rejection and depression. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 39-45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.01.003
91. Slavich, G. M., Way, B. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Neural sensitivity to social rejection is associated with inflammatory responses to social stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 107, 14817-14822. doi:10.1073/pnas.1009164107
92. Somerville, L. H., Heatherton, T. F., & Kelley, W. M. (2006). Anterior cingulate cortex responds differentially to expectancy violation and social rejection. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 1007-1008. doi:10.1038/ nn1728
93. Steer, R. A., Ball, R., Ranieri, W. F., & Beck, A. T. (1999). Dimensions of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in clinically depressed patients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 117-128. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- 4679(199901)55:1<117::AID-JCLP12>.0.CO;2-A
94. Treynor, W., Gonzalez, W., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247-259. doi:10.1023/A:1023910315561
95. Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children's Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578-588. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.578
96. Ward, A., Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Can't quite commit: Rumination and uncertainty. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 96-107. doi:10.1177/0146167202238375
97. Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163-206. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2 .163
98. Watkins, E. R., & Baracaia, S. (2002). Rumination and social problem solving in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1179- 1189. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00098-5
99. Watkins, E., & Moulds, M. (2005). Distinct modes of ruminative selffocus: Impact of abstract versus concrete rumination on problem solving in depression. Emotion, 5, 319-328. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.3.319
100. Watkins, E. R., Mullan, E., Wingrove, J., Rimes, K., Steiner, H., Bathurst, N., . . . Scott, J. (2011). Rumination-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy for residual depression: phase II randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 199, 317-322.
101. Watkins, E. R., Scott, J., Wingrove, J., Rimes, K., Bathurst, N., Steiner, H., . . . Malliaris, Y. (2007). Rumination-focused cognitive- behavior therapy for residual depression: A case series. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2144-2154. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.09.018
102. Weissman, D. H., Gopalakrishnan, A., Hazlett, C. J., & Woldorff, M. G. (2005). Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex resolves conflict from distracting stimuli by boosting attention toward relevant events. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 229-237. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh125
103. Wenzlaff, R. M., Wegner, D. M., & Roper, D. W. (1988). Depression and mental control: The resurgence of unwanted negative thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 882-892. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.55.6.882