Exploration of the Influence of Childhood Trauma, Combat Exposure, and the Resilience Construct on Depression and Suicidal Ideation Among U.S. Iraq/Afghanistan Era Military Personnel and Veterans

Archives of Suicide Research

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 106-122

  Youssef, Nagy A ^a,b,c   Green, Kimberly T ^b   Dedert, Eric A ^a,b   Hertzberg, Jeffrey S ^b   Calhoun, Patrick S ^a,b   Dennis, Michelle F ^b   Beckham, Jean C ^a,b  

^a DURHAM VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA   (United States)

Author keywords

child abuse; combat disorders; depressive disorder; posttraumatic stress disorders; psychological resilience; suicide

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD ABUSE; COMORBIDITY; COPING BEHAVIOR; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; STATISTICS; SUICIDAL IDEATION; VETERAN; VETERANS HEALTH; WAR;

ADULT; AFGHAN CAMPAIGN 2001-; CHILD; CHILD ABUSE; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; IRAQ WAR, 2003 - 2011; MALE; RESILIENCE, PSYCHOLOGICAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; SUICIDAL IDEATION; VETERANS; VETERANS HEALTH; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84877303964     PISSN: 13811118     EISSN: 15436136     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13811118.2013.776445     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Afifi, T. O., Enns, M. W., Cox, B. J., Asmundson, G. J., Stein, M. B., & Sareen, J. (2008). Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders and suicide ideation and attempts associated with adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Public Health, 98 (5), 946 - 952.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2003). Practice guideline for the assessment and treatment of patients with suicidal behaviors. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, American Psychiatric Association.
3. Barsky, A. J., Peekna, H. M., & Borus, J. F. (2001). Somatic symptom reporting in women and men. [Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. Review]. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16 (4), 266 - 275.
4. Bates, M. J., Bowles, S., Hammermeister, J., Stokes, C., Pinder, E., Moore, M.,... Burbelo, G. (2010). Psychological Fitness. Military Medicine, 175 (8, Suppl 1), 21 - 38.
5. Beck, A. T. (1963). Thinking and depression. I. Idiosyncratic content and cognitive distortions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 9, 324 - 333.
6. Beck, A. T., Brown, G., Steer, R. A., Eidelson, J. I., & Riskind, J. H. (1987). Differentiating anxiety and depression: A test of the cognitive content-specificity hypothesis. [Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.]. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96 (3), 179 - 183.
7. Beck, A. T., Brown, G. K., & Steer, R. A. (1997). Psychometric characteristics of the Scale for Suicide Ideation with psychiatric outpatients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35 (11), 1039 - 1046. doi: S0005-7967(97)00073-9 [pii]
8. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1991). Manual for Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
9. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories -IA and -II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67 (3), 588 - 597.
10. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Ranieri, W. F. (1988). Scale for Suicide Ideation: Psychometric properties of a self-report version. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44 (4), 499 - 505.
11. Bernet, C. Z., & Stein, M. B. (1999). Relationship of childhood maltreatment to the onset and course of major depression in adulthood. Depression and Anxiety, 9 (4), 169 - 174.
12. Breslau, N. (2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 47 (10), 923 - 929.
13. Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1986). Suicidal thoughts and behaviours in former sexual abuse victims. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 18 (4), 413 - 423.
14. Brown, G. K., Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Grisham, J. R. (2000). Risk factors for suicide in psychiatric outpatients: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(3), 371-377.
15. Clancy, C. P., Graybeal, A., Tompson, W. P., Badgett, K. S., Feldman, M. E., Calhoun, P. S.,... Beckham, J. C. (2006). Lifetime trauma exposure in veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder: association with current symptomatology. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67 (9), 1346 - 1353.
16. Cochrane-Brink, K. A., Lofchy, J. S., & Sakinofsky, I. (2000). Clinical rating scales in suicide risk assessment. General Hospital Psychiatry, 22 (6), 445 - 451. doi: S0163834300001067 [pii]
17. Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., Messer, J., Rutter, M., Shearer, C., & Maughan, B. (2007). Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31 (3), 211 - 229.
18. Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18 (2), 76 - 82. doi: 10.1002/da.10113 [doi]
19. Crosby, A., Han, B., Ortega, L., Parks, S., & Gfroerer, J. (2011). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among adults aged ≥18 years-United States, 2008-2009. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 60 (SS13), 1 - 22.
20. Davidson, J., Baldwin, D. S., Stein, D. J., Pedersen, R., Ahmed, S., Musgnung, J.,... Rothbaum, B. O. (2008). Effects of venlafaxine extended release on resilience in posttraumatic stress disorder: An item analysis of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23 (5), 299 - 303. doi: 10.1097/YIC.0b013e32830c202d [doi]
21. Davidson, J. R., Book, S. W., Colket, J. T., Tupler, L. A., Roth, S., David, D.,... Feldman, M. E. (1997). Assessment of a new self-rating scale for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 27 (1), 153 - 160.
22. Davidson, J. R., Payne, V. M., Connor, K. M., Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Hertzberg, M. A., & Weisler, R. H. (2005). Trauma, resilience and saliostasis: effects of treatment in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20 (1), 43 - 48. doi: 00004850-200501000-00009 [pii]
23. Dedert, E. A., Green, K. T., Calhoun, P. S., Yoash-Gantz, R., Taber, K. H., Mumford, M. M.,... Beckham, J. C. (2009). Association of trauma exposure with psychiatric morbidity in military veterans who have served since September 11, 2001. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43 (9), 830 - 836. doi: S0022-3956(09)00014-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.01.004 [doi]
24. Dekker, J., Koelen, J. A., Peen, J., Schoevers, R. A., & Gijsbers-van Wijk, C. (2007). Gender differences in clinical features of depressed outpatients: preliminary evidence for subtyping of depression? [Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. Women and Health, 46 (4), 19 - 38.
25. Della Femina, D., Yeager, C. A., & Lewis, D. O. (1990). Child abuse: adolescent records vs. adult recall. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14 (2), 227 - 231.
26. Dube, S. R., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Chapman, D. P., Williamson, D. F., & Giles, W. H. (2001). Childhood abuse, household dysfunction, and the risk of attempted suicide throughout the life span: Findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. [Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.]. JAMA, 286 (24), 3089 - 3096.
27. Dube, S. R., Williamson, D. F., Thompson, T., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2004). Assessing the reliability of retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences among adult HMO members attending a primary care clinic. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28 (7), 729 - 737.
28. Duncan, R. D., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., & Resnick, H. S. (1996). Childhood physical assault as a risk factor for PTSD, depression, and substance abuse: Findings from a national survey. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66 (3), 437 - 448.
29. Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V.,... Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. [Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.]. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14 (4), 245 - 258.
30. Frank, E., Carpenter, L. L., & Kupfer, D. J. (1988). Sex differences in recurrent depression: are there any that are significant? [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145 (1), 41 - 45.
31. Gadermann, A. M., Alonso, J., Vilagut, G., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2012). Comorbidity and disease burden in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Depression & Anxiety, 29 (9), 797 - 806. doi: 10.1002/da.21924
32. Goldstein, R. B., Black, D. W., Nasrallah, A., & Winokur, G. (1991). The prediction of suicide. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value of a multivariate model applied to suicide among 1906 patients with affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48(5), 418-422.
33. Green, K. T., Calhoun, P. S., Dennis, M. F., & Beckham, J. C. (2010). Exploration of the resilience construct in posttraumatic stress disorder severity and functional correlates in military combat veterans who have served since September 11, 2001. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71 (7), 823 - 830. doi: 10.4088/JCP.09m05780blu [doi]
34. Gros, D. F., Simms, L. J., & Acierno, R. Specificity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: an investigation of comorbidity between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and depression in treatment-seeking veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198 (12), 885 - 890. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181fe741000005053-201012000-00008 [pii]
35. Guerra, V. S., & Calhoun, P. S. (2010). Examining the relation between posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation in an OEF/OIF veteran sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. doi: S0887-6185(10)00151-9 [pii]10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.025
36. Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 45 (2), 260 - 273.
37. Haskell, S. G., Gordon, K. S., Mattocks, K., Duggal, M., Erdos, J., Justice, A., & Brandt, C. A. (2010). Gender differences in rates of depression, PTSD, pain, obesity, and military sexual trauma among Connecticut War Veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. [Comparative Study]. J Womens Health (Larchmt), 19 (2), 267 - 271. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2008.1262
38. Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Bonsall, R., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158 (4), 575 - 581.
39. Helzer, J., Kraemer, H., Krueger, R., Wittchen, H.-U., Sirovatka, P., & Regier, D. (2008). Dimensional approaches in diagnostic classification: Refining the research agenda for DSM-V. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
40. Hourani, L., Bender, R. H., Weimer, B., Peeler, R., Bradshaw, M., Lane, M., & Larson, G. (2012). Longitudinal study of resilience and mental health in Marines leaving military service. [Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.]. Journal of Affective Disorders, 139 (2), 154 - 165. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.008
41. Kaplan, M. S., Huguet, N., McFarland, B. H., & Newsom, J. T. (2007). Suicide among male veterans: A prospective population-based study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61 (7), 619 - 624.
42. Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., Zimering, R. T., Taylor, K. L., & Mora, C. (1989). Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1 (53-55).
43. Kendler, K. S., Kuhn, J. W., & Prescott, C. A. (2004). Childhood sexual abuse, stressful life events and risk for major depression in women. Psychological Medicine, 34 (8), 1475 - 1482.
44. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R.,... Wang, P. S. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA, 289 (23), 3095 - 3105.
45. Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., & Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychol Assess, 12 (2), 210 - 224.
46. Kumar, G., Steer, R. A., Teitelman, K. B., & Villacis, L. (2002). Effectiveness of Beck Depression Inventory-II subscales in screening for major depressive disorders in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. [Evaluation Studies]. Assessment, 9 (2), 164 - 170.
47. Lapierre, C. B., Schwegler, A. F., & Labauve, B. J. (2007). Posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms in soldiers returning from combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20 (6), 933 - 943. doi: 10.1002/jts.20278
48. Leve, L. D., Fisher, P. A., & Chamberlain, P. (2009). Multidimensional treatment foster care as a preventive intervention to promote resiliency among youth in the child welfare system. Journal of Personality, 77 (6), 1869 - 1902. doi: JOPY603 [pii] 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00603.x
49. Mandelli, L., Carli, V., Roy, A., Serretti, A., & Sarchiapone, M. (2010). The influence of childhood trauma on the onset and repetition of suicidal behavior: An investigation in a high risk sample of male prisoners. Journal of Psychiatric Research. doi: S0022-3956(10)00323-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.11.005
50. Mann, J. J. (2003). Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour. National Review of Neuroscience, 4 (10), 819 - 828. doi: 10.1038/nrn1220nrn1220 [pii]
51. Marcus, S. M., Young, E. A., Kerber, K. B., Kornstein, S., Farabaugh, A. H., Mitchell, J.,... Rush, A. J. (2005). Gender differences in depression: findings from the STAR*D study. [Comparative Study]. Journal of Affective Disorders, 87 (2-3), 141 - 150. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2004.09.008
52. McDonald, S. D., Beckham, J. C., Morey, R. A., & Calhoun, P. S. (2009). The validity and diagnostic efficiency of the Davidson Trauma Scale in military veterans who have served since September 11th, 2001. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23 (2), 247 - 255. doi: S0887-6185(08)00141-2 [pii]10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.07.007 [doi]
53. McKenna, M. T., Michaud, C. M., Murray, C. J., & Marks, J. S. (2005). Assessing the burden of disease in the United States using disability-adjusted life years. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28 (5), 415 - 423.
54. Molnar, B. E., Buka, S. L., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Child sexual abuse and subsequent psychopathology: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91 (5), 753 - 760.
55. Nelson, E. C., Heath, A. C., Madden, P. A., Cooper, M. L., Dinwiddie, S. H., Bucholz, K. K.,... Martin, N. G. (2002). Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: Results from a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59 (2), 139 - 145. doi: yoa01037 [pii]
56. Read, J., Agar, K., Barker-Collo, S., Davies, E., & Moskowitz, A. (2001). Assessing suicidality in adults: Integrating childhood trauma as a major risk factor. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 32, 367 - 372.
57. Reivich, K. J., Seligman, M. E., & McBride, S. (2011). Master resilience training in the U.S. Army. American Psychologist, 66 (1), 25 - 34. doi: 2011-00087-005 [pii] 10.1037/a0021897
58. Riolo, S. A., Nguyen, T. A., Greden, J. F., & King, C. A. (2005). Prevalence of depression by race/ethnicity: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. American Journal of Public Health, 95 (6), 998 - 1000. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.047225
59. Ritchie, K., Jaussent, I., Stewart, R., Dupuy, A. M., Courtet, P., Ancelin, M. L., & Malafosse, A. (2009). Association of adverse childhood environment and 5-HTTLPR Genotype with late-life depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70 (9), 1281 - 1288.
60. Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity. Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598 - 611.
61. Sarchiapone, M., Carli, V., Cuomo, C., & Roy, A. (2007). Childhood trauma and suicide attempts in patients with unipolar depression. Depression and Anxiety, 24 (4), 268 - 272. doi: 10.1002/da.20243
62. Sarchiapone, M., Carli, V., Giannantonio, M. D., & Roy, A. (2009). Risk factors for attempting suicide in prisoners. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 39 (3), 343 - 350. doi: 10.1521/suli.2009.39.3.34310.1521/suli.2009.39.3.343 [pii]
63. Shannon, C., Schwandt, M. L., Champoux, M., Shoaf, S. E., Suomi, S. J., Linnoila, M., & Higley, J. D. (2005). Maternal absence and stability of individual differences in CSF 5-HIAA concentrations in rhesus monkey infants. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162 (9), 1658 - 1664.
64. Shea, A., Walsh, C., Macmillan, H., & Steiner, M. (2005). Child maltreatment and HPA axis dysregulation: relationship to major depressive disorder and post traumatic stress disorder in females. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30 (2), 162 - 178. doi: S0306-4530(04)00117-9 [pii]10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.07.001
65. Somervell, P. D., Leaf, P. J., Weissman, M. M., Blazer, D. G., & Bruce, M. L. (1989). The prevalence of major depression in black and white adults in five United States communities. [Comparative Study Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.]. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130 (4), 725 - 735.
66. Speilberger, C., Ritterband, L., Reheiser, E., & Brunner, T. (2003). The Nature and measurement of depression. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 3 (2), 209 - 234.
67. Stallard, P., Simpson, N., Anderson, S., Carter, T., Osborn, C., & Bush, S. (2005). An evaluation of the FRIENDS programme: a cognitive behaviour therapy intervention to promote emotional resilience. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90 (10), 1016 - 1019. doi: adc.2004.068163 [pii] 10.1136/adc.2004.068163
68. Steer, R. A., Ball, R., Ranieri, W. F., & Beck, A. T. (1999). Dimensions of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in clinically depressed outpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(1), 117-128. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199901)55:1<117::AID-JCLP12>3.0.CO;2-A [pii]
69. Steer, R. A., Rissmiller, D. J., Ranieri, W. F., & Beck, A. T. (1993). Dimensions of suicidal ideation in psychiatric inpatients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31 (2), 229 - 236. doi: 0005-7967(93)90090-H [pii]
70. Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27 (1-2), 33 - 44. doi: S0149763403000071 [pii]
71. Vaishnavi, S., Connor, K., & Davidson, J. R. (2007). An abbreviated version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), the CD-RISC2: psychometric properties and applications in psychopharmacological trials. Psychiatry Research, 152 (2-3), 293 - 297. doi: S0165-1781(07)00019-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.psychres.2007.01.006
72. Wingo, A. P., Wrenn, G., Pelletier, T., Gutman, A. R., Bradley, B., & Ressler, K. J. (2010). Moderating effects of resilience on depression in individuals with a history of childhood abuse or trauma exposure. Journal of Affective Disorders, 126 (3), 411 - 414. doi: S0165-0327(10)00345-9 [pii]10.1016/j.jad.2010.04.009
73. Zivin, K., Kim, H. M., McCarthy, J. F., Austin, K. L., Hoggatt, K. J., Walters, H., & Valenstein, M. (2007). Suicide mortality among individuals receiving treatment for depression in the Veterans Affairs health system: Associations with patient and treatment setting characteristics. American Journal of Public Health, 97 (12), 2193 - 2198.