Environmental changes and the rise and fall of civilizations in the northern horn of africa: An approach combining δd analyses of land-plant derived fatty acids with multiple proxies in soil

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta

Volumn 111, Issue , 2013, Pages 140-161

  Terwilliger, Valery J ^a,b,c   Eshetu, Zewdu ^d   Disnar, Jean Robert ^b   Jacob, Jérémy ^b   Paul Adderley, W ^e   Huang, Yongsong ^f   Alexandre, Marcelo ^g   Fogel, Marilyn L ^h  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

^b STATION DE RADIOASTRONOMIE DE NANÇAY   (France)

^c Le Studium   (France)

^d ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY   (Ethiopia)

^e UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING   (United Kingdom)

^f BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF SERGIPE   (Brazil)

^h GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; CIVILIZATION; CLIMATE EFFECT; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; FATTY ACID; HOLOCENE; HYDROGEN ISOTOPE; STABLE ISOTOPE; VEGETATION HISTORY;

HORN OF AFRICA;

EMBRYOPHYTA;

EID: 84876716755     PISSN: 00167037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gca.2012.10.040     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. Adderley W.P., Simpson I.A. Early-Norse home-field productivity in the Faroe Islands. Hum. Ecol. 2005, 33:711-736.
2. Adderley W.P., Simpson I.A. Soils and Palaeo-climate based evidence for irrigation requirements in Norse Greenland. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2006, 33:1666-1679.
3. Adderley W.P., Simpson I.A., Davidson D.A. Colour description and quantification in mosaic images of soil thin sections. Geoderma 2002, 108:181-195.
4. Adderley W.P., Simpson I.A., Davidson D.A. Historic landscape management: a validation of quantitative soil thin-section analyses. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2006, 33:320-334.
5. Adderley W.P., Simpson I.A., Vésteinsson O. Local-scale adaptations: a modeled assessment of soil, landscape, microclimatic, and management factors in Norse home-field productivities. Geoarchaeol. Int. J. 2008, 23:500-527.
6. Adderley W.P., Wilson C.A., Simpson I.A., Davidson D.A. Anthropogenic features. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths 2010, 569-588. Elsevier, Amsterdam. G. Stoops, V. Marcelino, F. Mees (Eds.).
7. Aimers J. Drought and the Maya: the story of the artefacts. Nature 2011, 479:44.
8. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (2000) Official Methods of AOAC International. AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD.
9. Bard K.A., Coltorti M., DiBlasi M.C., Dramis F., Fattovich R. The environmental history of Tigray (Northern Ethiopia) in the Middle and Late Holocene: a preliminary outline. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 2000, 17:65-86.
10. Beck J., Sieber A. Is the spatial distribution of mankind's most basic economic traits determined by climate and soil alone?. PLoS ONE 2010, 5:e10416. 10.1371/journal.pone.0010416.
11. Bellwood P. First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies 2005, Blackwell, Oxford.
12. Berakhi O., Brancaccio L., Calderoni G., Coltorti M., Dramis F., Umer M. The Mai Maiken sedimentary sequence: a reference point for the environmental evolution of the highlands of northern Ethiopia. Geomorphology 1998, 23:127-138.
13. Bossard N., Jacob J., Le Milbeau C., Lallier-Vergès E., Terwilliger V.J., Boscardin R. Variation in δD values of a single, species-specific molecular biomarker: a study of miliacin throughout a field of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2011, 25:2732-2740.
14. Büntgen U., Tegel W., Nicolussi K., McCormick M., Frank D., Trouet V., et al. 2500years of European climate variability and human susceptibility. Science 2011, 331:578-582.
15. Butzer K.W. Rise and fall of Axum, Ethiopia: a geo-archaeological interpretation. Am. Antiq. 1981, 46:471-495.
16. Butzer K.W. Environmental history in the Mediterranean world: cross-disciplinary investigation of cause-and-effect for degradation and soil erosion. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2005, 32:1773-1800.
17. CCSP (2003) Vision for the Program and Highlights of the Scientific Strategic Plan: A Report by the Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Available from: http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/stratplan2003/vision/ccsp-vision.pdf.
18. Chalié F., Gasse G. Late Glacial-Holocene diatom record of water chemistry and lake level change from the tropical East African Rift Lake Abiyata (Ethiopia). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2002, 187:259-283.
19. 13C analyses of n-alkanes extracted from terrestrial and aquatic plants. Phytochemistry 2003, 63:361-371.
20. 13C and δD relationships among three n-alkyl compound classes (n-alkanoic acid, n-alkane and n-alkanol) of terrestrial higher plants. Org. Geochem. 2007, 38:198-215.
21. 4 and CAM) and aquatic plants. Phytochemistry 2004, 65:1369-1381.
22. Connah G. Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology 2004, Routledge, London.
23. Cullen H.M., deMenocal P., Hemming S., Hemming G., Brown F.H., Guilderson T., et al. Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: evidence from the deep sea. Geology 2000, 28:379-382.
24. Curtis M.C. Relating the Ancient Ona culture to the wider northern Horn: discerning patterns and problems in the archaeology of the First Millennium BC. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 2009, 26:327-350.
25. D'Andrea A.C., Manzo A., Harrower J.J., Hawkins A.L. The Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite settlement of NE Tigrai, Ethiopia. J. Field Archaeol. 2008, 33:151-176.
26. D'Andrea A.C., Richards M.P., Pavlish L.A., Wood S., Manzo A., Wolde-Kiros H.S. Stable isotopic analysis of human and animal diets from two pre-Aksumite/Proto-Aksumite archaeological sites in northern Ethiopia. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2011, 38:367-374.
27. Dansgaard W. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 1964, 5:461-469.
28. Dergachev V.A., Raspopov O.M., Damblon F., Jungner H., Zaitseva G.I. Natural climate variability during the Holocene. Radiocarbon 2007, 49:837-854.
29. deMenocal P.B. Cultural responses to climate change during the Late Holocene. Science 2001, 292:667-673.
30. Diamond J. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed 2005, Viking, New York.
31. DiBlasi M.C. Foreword. Changing Settlement Patterns in the Aksum-Yeha Region of Ethiopia: 700 BC-AD 850.. Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 64. BAR International Series 1446 2005, ix-xv. Archaeopress Oxford, UK. J.W. Michels (Ed.).
32. Disnar J.R., Guillet B., Keravis D., Di-Giovanni C., Sebag D. Soil organic matter (SOM) characterization by Rock-Eval pyrolysis: scope and limitation. Org. Geochem. 2003, 34:327-343.
33. Disnar J.R., Jacob J., Morched-Issa M., Lottier N., Arnaud F. Assessment of peat quality by molecular and bulk geochemical analysis: application to the Holocene record of the Chautagne marsh (Haute Savoie, France). Chem. Geol. 2008, 254:101-112.
34. Dramis F., Umer M., Calderoni G., Haile M. Holocene climate phases from buried soils in Tigray (Northern Ethiopia): comparison with lake level fluctuations in the Main Ethiopia Rifts. Quatern. Res. 2003, 60:274-283.
35. Draper N.R., Smith H. Applied Regression Analysis 1981, Wiley and Sons, New York. second ed.
36. Drysdale R., Zanchetta G., Hellstrom J., Maas R., Fallick A., Pickett M., Cartwright I., Piccini L. Late Holocene drought responsible for the collapse of Old World civilizations is recorded in an Italian cave flowstone. Geology 2006, 34:101-104.
37. Duiker W.J., Spielvogel J.J. World History 2010, Wadsworth, Boston. sixth ed.
38. Edwards K.J., Borthwick D., Cook G., Dugmore A.J., Mairs K.-A., Church M., Simpson I.A., Adderley W.P. A hypothesis-based approach to landscape change in Su{eth}uroy, Faroe Islands. Hum. Ecol. 2005, 33:621-649.
39. Eglinton G., Hamilton R.J. Leaf epicuticular waxes. Science 1967, 156:1322-1335.
40. Ehret C. The Civilizations of Africa 2002, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
41. Emery K.F., Thornton E.K. A regional perspective on biotic change during the Classic Maya occupation using zooarchaeological isotopic chemistry. Quatern. Int. 2008, 191:131-143.
42. Enquist B.J., Enquist C.A.F. Long-term change within a Neotropical forest assessing differential functional and floristic responses to disturbance and drought. Glob. Change Biol. 2011, 17:1408-1424.
43. Eshetu Z. Historical C3-C4 vegetation pattern on forested mountain slopes: its implication for ecological rehabilitation of degraded highlands of Ethiopia by afforestation. J. Trop. Ecol. 2002, 18:743-758.
44. 13C natural abundance of soils. Ambio 2000, 29:83-89.
45. Espitalié J., Deroo G., Marquis F. La pyrolyse Rock-Eval et ses applications: première partie. Revue de l'IFP 1985, 40:563-579.
46. Espitalié J., Deroo G., Marquis F. La pyrolyse Rock-Eval et ses applications: deuxième partie. Revue de l'IFP 1985, 40:755-784.
47. Estep M.F., Hoering T.C. Biogeochemistry of the stable hydrogen isotopes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1980, 44:1197-1206.
48. Estep M.F., Hoering T.C. Stable hydrogen isotope fractionations during autotrophic and mixotrophic growth of microalgae. Plant Physiol. 1981, 67:474-477.
49. Fattovich R. Remarks on the Pre-Aksumite period in Northern Ethiopia. J. Ethiop. Stud. 1990, 23:1-34.
50. Fattovich R. The cultural and historical context. The Aksum Archaeological Area: A Preliminary Assessment. Working Paper 1 2000, 21-28. Istituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli. R. Fattovich, K.A. Bard, L. Petrassi, V. Pisano (Eds.).
51. Fattovich R. Reconsidering Yeha, c. 800-400 BC. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 2009, 26:275-290.
52. Feakins S.J., Sessions A.L. Controls on the D/H ratios of plant leaf waxes in an arid ecosystem. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2010, 74:2128-2141.
53. Feakins S.J., Sessions A.L. Crassulacean acid metabolism influences D/H ratio of leaf wax in succulent plants. Org. Geochem. 2010, 41:1269-1276.
54. Filipelli G.M., Souch C., Horn S.P., Newkirk D. The pre-Columbian footprint on terrestrial nutrient cycling in Costa Rica: insights from phosphorus in a lake sediment record. J. Paleolimnol. 2010, 43:843-856.
55. French C., Sulas F., Madella M. New geoarchaeological investigations of the valley systems in the Aksum area of northern Ethiopia. Catena 2009, 78:218-233.
56. Friis I. Forests and Forest Trees of North East Tropical Africa: Their Natural Habitats and DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia 1992, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Bulletin Additional Series xv, HMSO, London.
57. Galang M.A., Markewitz D., Morris L.A. Soil phosphorus transformations under forest burning and laboratory heat treatments. Geoderma 2010, 155:401-408.
58. Gani N.D., Gani M.R., Abdelsalam M.G. Blue Nile incision on the Ethiopian Plateau: pulsed plateau growth, Pliocene uplift, and hominin evolution. GSA Today 2007, 17:4-11.
59. Garcin Y., Schwab V.F., Gleixner G., Kahmen A., Todou G., Séné O., et al. Hydrogen isotope ratios of lacustrine sedimentary n-alkanes as proxies of tropical African hydrology: insights from a calibration transect across Cameroon. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 79:106-126.
60. Gasse F. Hydrological changes in the African tropics since the last glacial maximum. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 2000, 19:189-211.
61. Gat J. R. (1980) The isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in precipitation. In Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry, (eds. P. Fritz and J. Ch. Fontes). Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 1. pp. 21-47.
62. Gebru T., Eshetu Z., Huang Y., Woldemariam T., Strong N., Umer M., et al. Holocene palaeovegetation of the Tigray Plateau in northern Ethiopia from charcoal and stable organic carbon isotopic analyses of gully sediments. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2009, 282:67-80.
63. Gelfand M.J., Raver J.L., Nishii L., Leslie L.M., Lun J., Lim B.C., et al. Differences between tight and loose cultures: a 33-Nation study. Science 2011, 332:1100-1104.
64. Giorgi F., Diffenbaugh N.S., Gao X.J., Coppola E., Dash S.K., Frumento O., et al. The regional climate change hyper-matrix framework. EOS 2008, 89:445-446.
65. Harrower M.J., McCorriston J., D'Andrea A.C. General/specific, local/global: comparing the beginnings of agriculture in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia/Eritrea) and Southwest Arabia (Yemen). Am. Antiq. 2010, 75:452-472.
66. Hassan R. Nile floods and political disorder in early Egypt. Third Millennium B.C. Climate Change and Old World Collapse 1997, vol. 49:1-23. Springer, Berlin.
67. 4 photosynthesis. Curr. Top. Cell. Regul. 1978, 14:1-27.
68. Haug G.H., Günther D., Peterson L.C., Sigman D.M., Hughen K.A., Aeschlimann B. Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization. Science 2003, 299:1731-1735.
69. Hodell D. Drought and the Maya: Maya megadrought?. Nature 2011, 479:44.
70. Hou J., D'Andrea W.J., Huang Y. Can sedimentary leaf waxes record D/H ratios of continental precipitation? Field, model, and experimental assessments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2008, 72:3503-3517.
71. IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. In Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Geneva (eds. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Avery, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller) Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. Available from: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/contents.html.
72. Jackson P.C., Meinzer F.C., Bustamante M., Goldstein G., Franco A., Rundel P.W., et al. Partitioning of soil water among tree species in a Brazilian Cerrado ecosystem. Tree Physiol. 1999, 19:717-724.
73. Jones D., Briffa K.R., Osborn T.J., Lough J.M., van Ommen T.D., Vinther B.M., et al. High-resolution palaeoclimatology of the last millennium: a review of current status and future prospects. Holocene 2009, 19:3-49.
74. Kolattukudy P.E. Biosynthesis of cuticular lipids. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 1970, 21:163-192.
75. 2H analyses of plant and soil organic matter: a preliminary assessment of the effects of vegetation change on ecosystem hydrology. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2006, 38:3211-3221.
76. Lafargue E., Marquis F., Pillot D. Rock-Eval 6 applications in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and soil contamination studies. Rev. Inst. Fr. Pet. 1998, 53:421-437.
77. Machado M.J., Perez-Gonzalez A., Benito G. Paleoenvironmental changes during the last 4000years in the Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Quatern. Res. 1998, 49:312-321.
78. Marshall M.H., Lamb H.F., Davies S.J., Leng M.J., Kubsa Z., Umer M., et al. Climatic change in northern Ethiopia during the past 17,000years: a diatom and stable isotope record from Lake Ashenge. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2009, 279:114-117.
79. Marshall M.H., Lamb H.F., Huws D., Davies S.J., Bates R., Bloemendal J., et al. Late Pleistocene and Holocene drought events at Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile. Global Planet. Change 2011, 78:147-161.
80. Mastrandrea M.D., Schneider S.H. Preparing for Climate Change 2010, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
81. McGovern T.H. Management for extinction in Norse Greenland. Historical Ecology: Cultural Knowledge and Changing Landscapes 1994, 127-154. Santa Fe School of American Research Monograph. C. Crumley (Ed.).
82. McInerney F.A., Helliker B.R., Freeman K.H. Hydrogen isotope ratios of leaf wax n-alkanes in grasses are insensitive to transpiration. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2011, 75:541-554.
83. Munsell Soil Color Charts (1994) Macbeth Division of Kollmorgen Instruments Corporation, New Windsor, NY.
84. Murphy C.P. The overestimation of clay and the underestimation of pores in soil thin-sections. J. Soil Sci. 1984, 35:481-495.
85. National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia (1998-2006). Available from: http://www.ethiomet.gov.et/stations/regional_information/1.
86. 13C. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 2010, 29:2996-3005.
87. Nobel P.S. Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology 1999, Academic Press, San Diego. second ed.
88. Nyssen J., Poesen J., Moeyersons J., Deckers J., Haile M., Lang A. Human impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands - a state of the art. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2004, 64:273-320.
89. Oosterbaan R. J. (no date). Available from: http://www.waterlog.info/segreg.htm.
90. Oosterbaan R. J., Sharma D. P., Singh K. N. and Rao K. V. G. K. (1990) Crop production and soil salinity: evaluation of field data from India by segmented linear regression with breakpoint. Session V, Proceedings of the Symposium on Land Drainage for Salinity Control in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions, vol. 3. Cairo, February 1990, pp. 373-383.
91. Patterson W.P., Dietrich K.A., Holmden C., Andrews J.T. Two millennia of North Atlantic seasonality and implications for Norse colonies. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2010, 107:5306-5310.
92. Phillipson D.W. Ancient Ethiopia, Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors 1998, British Museum Press, London.
93. Polissar P.J., Freeman K.H. Effects of aridity and vegetation on plant-wax δD in modern lake sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2010, 74:5785-5797.
94. Reimer P.J., Baillie M.G.L., Bard E., Bayliss A., Beck J.W., Bertrand C.J.H., et al. INTCAL04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26calkyrBP. Radiocarbon 2004, 46:1029-1058.
95. Rein G., Cleaver N., Ashton C., Pironi P., Torero J. The severity of smouldering peat fires and damage to the forest soil. Catena 2008, 74:304-309.
96. Resende J.C.F., Markewitz D., Klink C.A., da Chunha Bustamante M.M., Davidson E.A. Phosphorus cycling in a small watershed in the Brazilian Cerrado: impacts of frequent burning. Biogeochemistry 2011, 105:105-118.
97. Rhoades J.D., Corwin D.L. Electrical conductivity methods for measuring and mapping soil salinity. Adv. Agron. 1993, 49:201-251.
98. Richardson C.J. Mechanisms controlling phosphorous retention capacity in freshwater wetlands. Science 1985, 228:1424-1427.
99. 18O and δD of precipitation and water vapor in the tropics: 2. Physical interpretation of the amount effect. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113. 10.1029/2008JD009943.
100. Robin C., de Maigret A. Le Grand Temple de Yéha (Tigray, Ethiopie), après la première campagne de fouilles de la Mission française (1998). CRAI 1998, 142:737-798.
101. 18O as tracer in the study of photosynthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1941, 63:877-878.
102. Sachse D., Radke J., Gleixner G. Hydrogen isotope ratios of recent lacustrine sedimentary n-alkanes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2004, 68:4877-4889.
103. Sachse D., Radke J., Gleixner G. ΔD values of individual n-alkanes from terrestrial plants along a climatic gradient - implications for the sedimentary biomarker record. Org. Geochem. 2006, 37:469-483.
104. Sachse D., Billault I., Bowen G.J., Chikaraishi Y., Dawson T.E., Feakins S.J., et al. Molecular paleohydrology: interpreting the hydrogen-isotopic composition of lipid biomarkers from photosynthesizing organisms. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2012, 40:221-249.
105. Schoeneberger P. J., Wysocki D. A., Benham E. C. and Broderson, W. D. (Eds.) (2002) Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.
106. Sessions A.L., Burgoyne T.W., Schimmelmann A., Hayes J.M. Fractionation of hydrogen isotopes in lipid biosynthesis. Org. Geochem. 1999, 30:1193-1200.
107. Simpson I.A., Adderley W.P., Gumundsson G., Hallsdóttir M., Sigurgeirsson M.á., Snæsdóttir M. Soil limitations to agrarian land production in premodern Iceland. Hum. Ecol. 2002, 30:423-443.
108. Simpson I.A., Vesteinsson O., Adderley W.P., McGovern T.H. Fuel resource utilisation in landscapes of settlement. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2003, 30:1401-1420.
109. 4 grasses. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2006, 70:1172-1187.
110. Soil Survey Staff (1995) Soil Survey Laboratory Information Manual. USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 45, Version 1.0. National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.
111. Sokal R.R., Rohlf F.J. Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research 1995, Freeman, New York. third ed.
112. Stager J.C., Mayewski P.A. Abrupt early to mid-Holocene climatic transition registered at the equator and the poles. Science 1997, 276:1834-1836.
113. Sternberg L.S.L. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios in plant cellulose: mechanisms and applications. Stable Isotopes in Ecological Research 1989, 124-141. Springer, New York. P.W. Rundel, J.R. Ehleringer, K.A. Nagy (Eds.).
114. 4 plants. Phytochemistry 1984, 23:2475-2477.
115. 4 species of the dicotyledonae in relation to climate. Am. Nat. 1978, 112:609-623.
116. Stuiver M. and Reimer P. (1986-2005) CALIB 5.0.2. Available from: http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib.
117. 14C age calibration program. Radiocarbon 1993, 35:215-230.
118. Sulas F. (2010) Environmental and cultural interplay in highland Ethiopia: geoarchaeology at Aksum. Ph. D. thesis, Univ. of Cambridge, Department of Archaeology, Cambridge, UK.
119. Teeri J. Interaction of temperature and other environmental variables influencing plant distribution. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1988, 42:77-89.
120. Telford J.J., Heegaard E., Birks H.M.B. The intercept is a poor estimate of a calibrated radiocarbon age. Holocene 2004, 14:296-298.
121. 15N values of soil organic matter: a calibration from arid and wetter elevation transects in Ethiopia. Geoderma 2008, 147:197-210.
122. Terwilliger V.J., Eshetu Z., Alexandre M., Huang Y., Umer M., Gebru T. Local variation in climate and land use during the time of the major kingdoms of the Tigray Plateau of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Catena 2011, 85:130-143.
123. Thomson D.J. Time series analysis of Holocene climate data. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A - Math. Phys. Sci. 1990, 330:601-616.
124. Tierney J., Lewis S.C., Cook B.I., LeGrande A.N., Schmidt G.A. Model, proxy and isotopic perspectives on the East African Humid Period. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2011, 307:103-112.
125. Trouve C., Mariotti A., Schwarz D., Geuillet B. Soil organic carbon dynamics under Eucalyptus and Pinus planted on savanna in the Congo. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1994, 26:287-295.
126. Turchin P. Arise 'cliodynamics'. Nature 2008, 454:34-35.
127. Vimeux F., Masson V., Jouzel J., Stievenard M., Petit J.R. Glacial-interglacial changes in ocean surface conditions in the southern hemisphere. Nature 1999, 398:410-413.
128. Weiss H., Bradley S. What drives societal collapse?. Science 2001, 291:609-610.
129. Weiss H., Courty M.A., Wetterstrom W., Guichard F., Senior L., Meadow T., et al. The genesis and collapse of third millennium North Mesopotamian civilization. Science 1993, 261:995-1004.
130. Whalley W.R., Riseley B., Leeds-Harrison P.B., Bird N.R.A., Leech P.K., Adderley W.P. Structural differences between bulk and rhizosphere soil. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2005, 56:353-360.
131. Worden J., Noone D., Bowman K. Importance of rain evaporation and continental convection in the tropical water cycle. Nature 2007, 445:528-532.
132. Yakir D. Variations in the natural abundance of oxygen-18 and deuterium in plant carbohydrates. Plant, Cell Environ. 1992, 15:1005-1020.
133. Yurtsever Y. Worldwide survey of stable isotopes in precipitation. Report Section Isotope Hydrology 1975, International Atomic Energy Association, Vienna.
134. Zhang X., Gillespie A.L., Sessions A. Large D/H variations in bacterial lipids reflect central metabolic pathways. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2009, 106:12580-12586.