Globalization and national security

Globalization and National Security

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-33

  Kirshner, Jonathan ^a  

^a Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84875973625     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203943762     Document Type: Chapter

References (183)

1. For representative entry points into this vast literature, see David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999);
2. Jan Aart Scholte, Globalization: A Critical Introduction (New York: Palgrave, 2000);
3. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, A Future Perfect: The Challenge and Hidden Promise of Globalization (New York: Crown Business, 2000).
4. Kenneth Waltz, "Globalization and Governance," PS: Political Science and Politics 32(4) (December 1999): 693-700;
5. Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), especially 362-376;
6. Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization, rev. ed. (New York: Anchor Books, 2000);
7. Kenichi Ohmae, Invisible Continent: Four Strategic Imperatives of the New Economy (New York: Harper Collins, 2000).
8. On interdependence, see for example Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little Brown, 1977);
9. Edward D. Mansfield and Brian M. Pollins, eds., Economic Interdependence and International Conflict: New Perspectives on an Enduring Debate (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).
10. See Michael Loriaux, France After Hegemony: International Change and Financial Reform (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991);
11. Jeffrey Sachs and Charles Wyplosz, "The Economic Consequences of President Mitterrand," Economic Policy (April 1986): 262-306.
12. Jonathan Kirshner, "Political Economy in Security Studies After the Cold War," Review of International Political Economy 5(1) (Spring 1998): 73-74, 78-79.
13. There is a growing literature on the meaning and implications of contemporary unipolarity. A good starting point is G. John Ikenberry, ed., America Unrivaled: The Future of the Balance of Power (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002);
14. see also Stephen Brooks and William Wolforth, "American Primacy in Perspective," Foreign Affairs 81(4) (July-August, 2002): 20-33.
15. For a good discussion of these issues, see Joseph S. Nye, Jr., "Neorealism and Neoliberalism," World Politics 40(2) (January 1988): especially 235, 242, 243.
16. On the policy preferences of the Bush administration, see "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America," the White House, Washington, D.C., September 2002, www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html.
17. On this point more generally, see Peter Katzenstein, A World of Regions: Asia and Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
18. Eric Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994;
19. cf. John Goodman and Louis Pauly, "The Obso lescence of Capital Controls? Economic Management in the Age of Global Markets," World Politics 46(1) (1993): 50-82;
20. Monroe E. Price, Media and Sovereignty: The Global Information Revolution and Its Challenge to State Power (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 227, 230.
21. Peter Beinart, "An Illusion for our Time: The False Promise of Globalization," The New Republic, October 20, 1997, 20 (quote).
22. Jean-Marie Guehenno, "The Impact of Globalization on Strategy," Survival 40(4) (Winter 1998-99): 16 (quote).
23. Harold James, The End of Globalization: Lessons from the Great Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001);
24. Kevin H. O'Rourke and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Globalization and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth Century Atlantic Economy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
25. See Michael Bordo, Barry Eichengeen, and Douglas Irwin, "Is Globalization Today Really Different than Globalization a Hundred Years Ago?", NBER Working Paper No. 7195 (Cambridge, MA: NBER, 1999).
26. See the various essays in "Searching for Security in a Global Economy," Daedalus 120(4) (Fall 1991).
27. Charlotte Twight, Watching You: Systematic Federal Surveillance of Ordinary Americans, Cato Institute Briefing Papers No. 69 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2001);
28. David Lyon, "Editorial. Surveillance Studies: Understanding Visibility, Mobility and the Phenetic Fix," Surveillance and Society 1(1) (2002): 1-7.
29. Price, Media and Sovereignty, 3.
30. Ronald J. Deibert, Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia: Communication in World Order Transformation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 2, 67 (first quote), 137, 142 (second quote).
31. Clement M. Henry and Robert Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 100, 121, 127, 134, 161, 192-193. Henry and Springborg present these challenges more starkly, arguing "the danger to a bunker economy is that adjustment to the global economy, however necessary, will undermine it," 122.
32. See Jonathan Kirshner, "The Inescapable Politics of Money," in Jonathan Kirshner, ed., Monetary Orders: Ambiguous Economics, Ubiquitous Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003).
33. Stanley Hoffman, "Clash of Globalizations," Foreign Affairs 81(4) (July/August 2002): 111;
34. Audrey Kurth Cronin, "Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism," International Security 27(3) (Winter 2002/03): 53;
35. Albert O. Hirschman, "The Changing Tolerance for Income Inequality in the Course of Economic Development," Quarterly Journal of Economics 87(4) (November 1973): 544-566.
36. For the argument that market liberalization and democracy contribute to ethnic instability and violence in many developing states with "market-dominant-minorities," see Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (New York: Anchor, 2004), especially 10, 16, 125, 132.
37. Martha Crenshaw, "Why America? The Globalization of Civil War," Current History 100 (December 2001), 425 (quote), 429 (quote);
38. see also Michael T. Clare, "Waging Post-Industrial Warfare on the Global Battlefield," Current History (December 2001): 435, 437;
39. Cronin, "Behind the Curve," 53.
40. Martha Crenshaw and Maryann Cusimano Love, "Networked Terror," in Beyond Sovereignty: Issues for a Global Agenda, ed. Maryann Cusimano Love, 2nd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson, 2003), 127.
41. Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Globalized Era (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 2, 3 (quote), 9, 90, 110;
42. see also John Mackinlay, Globalization and Insurgency, Adelphi Paper 352 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2002), 27.
43. Stephen G. Brooks, "The Globalization of Production and the Changing Benefits of Conquest," Journal of Conflict Resolution 43(5) (October 1999): 646-670.
44. Cf. Peter Liberman, Does Conquest Pay: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
45. "Because of globalization, terrorists have access to more powerful techniques, more targets, more territory, more means of recruitment, and more exploitable sources of rage than ever before," Cronin, "Behind the Curve," 53;
46. see also Hoffman, "Clash of Globalizations," 112. On globalization and separatism, see Walter Connor, "Nation-Building or Nation-Destroying?" World Politics 24(3) (April 1972): 329;
47. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, 4, 70, 110;
48. Chua, World on Fire, 187;
49. Mackinlay, Globalization and Insurgency, 93.
50. Brooks, "The Globalization of Production," 654;
51. Deibert, Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia, 26.
52. See Peter Andreas, Border Games: Policing the US-Mexico Divide (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001);
53. Saskia Sassen, Globalization and Its Discontents: Essays on the New Mobility of People and Money (New York: New Press, 1998), sec. I, 3-76;
54. Susan Strange, Mad Money: When Markets Outgrow Governments (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), chap. 7, 97-122.
55. Crenshaw and Love, "Networked Terror," 127-128;
56. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, 2, 9, 105;
57. Clare, "Waging Post-Industrial Warfare," 437 (first quote);
58. Crenshaw, "Why America," 431 (second quote).
59. Ron Martin, "Stateless Monies, Global Financial Integration and National Economic Autonomy: The End of Geography?" in Money, Power and Space, eds. Stuart Corbridge, Ron Martin, and Nigel Thrift (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 258, 260;
60. Herbert Dieter, "World Economy-Structures and Trends," in Global Trends and Global Governance, eds. Paul Kennedy, Dirk Messner, and Franz Nuscheler (London: Pluto Press, 2002), 71-72;
61. J. Carter Beese Jr., "U.S. Capital Markets Leadership in the Changing Global Economy," in Economic Strategy and National Security: A Next Generation Approach, ed. Patrick J. DeSouza (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 189;
62. see also Susan Roberts, "Fictitious Capital, Fictitious Spaces: the Geography of Offshore Financial Flows,"
63. Corbridge, Martin, and Thrift, Money, Power and Space.
64. On previous episodes of financial globalization, see O'Rourke and Williamson, Globalization and History, 213-223
65. Robert Zevin, "Are World Financial Markets More Open? If So Why and With What Effects," in Financial Openness and National Autonomy: Opportunities and Constraints, eds. Tariq Banuri and Juliet B. Schor (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
66. Martin, "Stateless Monies," 255, 264, 271, 274;
67. see also Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance;
68. Kirshner, "The Inescapable Politics of Money."
69. See for example Barry Eichengreen, Financial Crises (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002);
70. John Eatwell and Lance Taylor, Global Finance at Risk (New York: The New Press, 2000);
71. Alexandre Lamfalussy, Financial Crises in Emerging Markets: An Essay on Financial Globalisation and Fragility (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002).
72. Jagdish Bhagwati, "The Capital Myth," Foreign Affairs 77(3) (May/June 1998): 9, 12 (quote);
73. Dani Rodrik, "Who Needs Capital Account Convertibility?" in Should the IMF Pursue Capital Account Convertibility? ed. Peter Kenen, Essays in International Finance, International Finance 207 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 61;
74. Richard N. Cooper, "Should Capital Controls Be Banished?," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1 (1999): 99;
75. Cooper, "Should Capital Account Convertibility Be a World Objective?" in Kenen, Should the IMF Pursue Capital Account Convertibility?
76. Mark Blyth, "The Political Power of Financial Ideas: Transparency, Risk and Distribution in Global Finance," in Kirshner, Monetary Orders.
77. John Williamson and Molly Mahar, A Survey of Financial Liberalization, Essays in International Finance 211 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998);
78. Ariel Buria, An Alternative Approach to Financial Crises, Essays in International Finance 212 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999);
79. Thomas D. Willett, International Financial Markets as Sources of Crises or Discipline: The Too Much Too Late Hypothesis, Essays in International Finance 218 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).
80. Blyth, "The Political Power of Financial Ideas"
81. Jonathan Kirshner, "Explaining Choices About Money: Disentangling Power, Ideas and Conflict,"
82. Ilene Grabel, "Ideology, Power and the Rise of Independent Monetary Institutions in Emerging Economies," both in Kirshner, Monetary Orders;
83. Susan Strange, "Finance, Information and Power," Review of International Studies 16(3) (July 1990), reprinted in Authority and Markets: Susan Strange's Writings on International Political Economy, eds. Roger Tooze and Christopher May (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 71, 79.
84. See Uk Heo, "South Korea: Democratization, Financial Crisis, and the Decline of the Developmental State," in The Political Economy of International Financial Crises: Interest Groups, Ideologies, Institutions, eds. Shale Horowitz and Uk Heo (London: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001);
85. see also Kiseok Hong and Jong-Wha Lee, "Korea: Returning to Sustainable Growth?" in The Asian Financial Crisis: Lessons for a Resilient Asia, eds. Wing Thye Woo, Jeffrey Sachs, and Klaus Schwab (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).
86. Martin Feldstein argued the Korean economy, "an economy to envy," was suffering from a crisis of "temporary illiquidity rather than fundamental insolvency" in "Refocusing the IMF," Foreign Affairs 77(2) (1998): 24, 27, 32;
87. W. Max Corden concurred, noting that the second category of IMF demands would not "either help resolve the crisis or prevent a future one." ("The World Financial Crisis: Are the IMF Prescriptions Right?" in Horowitz and Heo, The Political Economy of International Financial Crisis, 59).
88. Joseph E. Stiglitz, "Failure of the Fund: Rethinking the IMF Response," Harvard International Review 23 (2) (Summer 2001): 17 (quote), 18.
89. See also Robert Gilpin, The Challenge of Global Capitalism: The World Economy in the 21st Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 157, 159;
90. John A. Mathews, "Fashioning a New Korean Model out of the Crisis: The Rebuilding of Institutional Capabilities," Cambridge Journal of Economics 22 (1998): 752;
91. Donald Kirk, Korean Crisis: Unraveling of the Miracle in the IMF Era (New York: Palgrave, 1999), 35, 36-38, 43, 46.
92. U.S. Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers said that "the IMF has done more to promote America's trade and investment agenda in East Asia than 30 years of bilateral trade negotiations," quoted in David Hale, "Dodging the Bullet-This Time," Brookings Review (Summer 1998): 24
93. C. F. Joanne Gowa, "Bipolarity, Multipolarity and Free Trade," American Political Science Review 85(4) (December 1984): 1245-1256;
94. Joseph Grieco, "Understanding the Problem of International Cooperation: The Limits of Neoliberal Institutionalism and the Future of Realist Theory," in Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate, ed. David Baldwin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
95. Katzenstein, A World of Regions.
96. C. Fred Bergsten, "America's Two Front Economic Conflict," Foreign Affairs 80(2) (March/April 2001): 16-27.
97. On Japan's increasing assertiveness in the late 1980s see Eric Helleiner, "Japan and the Changing Global Financial Order," International Journal 47 (Spring 1992): especially 434-437.
98. Council on Foreign Exchange and Other Transactions, "Internationalization of the Yen for the 21st Century," Report 20, April 1999, http://www.mof.go.jp/english/if/e1b064a.htm, especially 4 (quote), 5, 7.
99. See also William Grimes, "The Internationalization of the Yen and the New Politics of Monetary Insulation," in Kirshner, Monetary Orders;
100. Jennifer Holt Dwyer, "U.S.-Japan Financial-Market Relations in an Era of Global Dominance," in New Perspectives of U.S.-Japan Relations, ed. Gerald L. Curtis (Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, 2000), 92, 116.
101. Saori N. Katada, "Japan and Asian Monetary Regionalization: Cultivating a New Regional Leadership Role After the Asian Financial Crisis," Geopolitics 7(1) (Summer 2002): especially 86;
102. Grimes, "Internationalization of the Yen," 173, 181, 185; 181+185
103. See also Paul Bowles, "Asia's Post-Crisis Regionalism: Bringing the State Back In, Keeping the (United) States Out," Review of International Political Economy 9(2) (Summer 2002): 231, 248.
104. Eric Altbach, "The Asian Monetary Fund Proposal: A Case Study of Japanese Regional Leadership," JEI Report 47 (December 19, 1997);
105. C. Fred Bergsten, Reviving the "Asian Monetary Fund," International Economics Policy Briefs 98-8 (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1998): 1-14.
106. Michael J. Green, Japan's Reluctant Realism: Foreign Policy Challenges in an Era of Uncertain Power (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 230-231, 245 (first quote), 248;
107. Paul Bluestein, The Chastening: Inside the Crisis that Rocked the Global Financial System and Humbled the IMF (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 165-166.
108. Eric Helleiner, "Still an Extraordinary Power, but for How Much Longer? The United States in World Finance," in Strange Power: Shaping the Parameters of International Relations and International Political Economy, ed. Thomas C. Lawton, James N. Rosneau, and Amy C. Verdun (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), 236;
109. Philip Y. Lipscy, "Japan's Asian Monetary Fund Proposal," Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 3(1) (Spring 2003): 93;
110. Christopher B. Johnstone, "Paradigms Lost: Japan's Asia Policy in a Time of Growing Chinese Power," Contemporary Southeast Asia 21(3) (December 1999): 377;
111. Altbach, "Asian Monetary Fund," 2, 10 (quotes).
112. Katada, "Japan and Asian Monetary Regionalization," 87, 104, 105;
113. Grimes, "Internationalization of the Yen," 173;
114. Johnstone, "Paradigms Lost," 381;
115. Green, Japan's Reluctant Realism, 230.
116. For an example of China's ambitions, see Jane Perlez, "With U.S. Busy, China is Romping with Neighbors," New York Times, December 3, 2003.
117. Saori Katada, "Determining Factors in Japan's Cooperation and Non-Cooperation with the United States: The Case of the Asian Financial Crisis Management, 1997-1999," in Japanese Foreign Policy in Asia and the Pacific: Domestic Interests, American Pressure, and Regional Integration, eds. Akitoshi Miyashita and Yoichiro Sato (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 161, 169. Katada argues that domestic financial concerns that surfaced in Japan in 1997 also contributed to the demise of the AMF, suggesting that Japan would reassert its international ambitions as domestic economic pressures eased (162).
118. See also Hughes, "Japanese Policy and East Asian Currency Crisis," 245-247;
119. Bowles, "Asia's Post Crisis Regionalism," 239, 240;
120. Lipscy, "Japan's Asian Monetary Fund Proposal," 96, 97;
121. Norbert Walter, "The Euro: Second to (N)one," German Issues 23 (1999): 24 (first quote);
122. Martin Feldstein, "The EMU and International Conflict," Foreign Affairs 76(6) (November/December 1997): 60 (quote), 72, 73;
123. see also Hubert Zimmerman, "Ever Challenging the Buck? The Euro and the Question of Power in International Monetary Governance" (unpublished paper, Cornell University, 2003).
124. On how soon the euro will challenge the dollar, see C. Fred Bergsten, "The Euro Versus the Dollar: Will There Be a Struggle for Dominance," paper presented at the American Economic Association, January 4, 2002 (argues for sooner);
125. Benjamin J. Cohen, "Global Currency Rivalry: Can the Euro Ever Challenge the Dollar," Journal of Common Market Studies 41(4) (2003): 575-595 (argues for later).
126. On the possibility of emerging rifts between the United States and Europe, see Charles Kupchan, The End of the American Era (New York: Knopf, 2002).
127. Harold Innis, Empire and Communications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950);
128. see also Peter J. Hugill, Global Communications Since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).
129. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., and William Owens, "America's Information Edge," Foreign Affairs 75(2) (March/April 1996): 20-36;
130. Peter Wilkin, The Political Economy of Global Communication (London: Pluto Press, 2001), 36;
131. See also Jeremy Shapiro, "Information and War: Is it a Revolution?" in Strategic Appraisal: The Changing Role of Information in Warfare, eds. Zalmay Khalilzad and John White (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1999).
132. See Zalmay Khalilzad, "Defense in a Wired World: Protection, Deterrence, and Prevention," in Khalilzad and White, Strategic Appraisal, especially 407.
133. Lawrence Greenberg, "Danger.com: National Security in a Wired World," in DeSouza, Economic Strategy and National Security, 303-305;
134. Steven A. Hildreth, "Cyberwarfare," Congressional Research Service Report RL30735 (June 19, 2001), 2, 12, 15;
135. Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas, "The Internet and State Control in Authoritarian Regimes: China, Cuba and the Counterrevolution," Carnegie Endowment Information Revolution and World Politics Project, Working Paper 21 (July 2001), 10;
136. Richard Love, "The Cyberthreat Continuum," in Cusimano Love, Beyond Sovereignty, 196, 203.
137. Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi, "Small Media for a Big Revolution: Iran," Politics, Culture and Society 3(3) (Spring 1990): 341-371.
138. Geoffrey L. Herrera, "The Politics of Bandwidth: International Political Implications of a Global Digital Information Network," Review of International Studies 28 (2002): 93, 95, 103 (quote);
139. see also Lawrence Lessig, Code: And Other Laws of Cyberspace (New York: Basic Books, 1999), especially 43-44.
140. Price, Media and Sovereignty, 19, 73, 90;
141. Gary Rodan, "The Internet and Political Control in Singapore," Political Science Quarterly 113(1) (1998): 70, 72;
142. Diebert, Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia, 168;
143. Wilkin, Political Economy of Global Communication, 44.
144. Shanthi Kalathil, "The Internet and Asia: Broadband or Broad Bans?" Foreign Service Journal (February 2001): 21-36.
145. Kalathil and Boas, "The Internet and State Control in Authoritarian Regimes," 2, 3, 9, 14;
146. Michael Chase and James C. Mulvenon, You've Got Dissent! Chinese Use of the Internet and Beijing's Counter-Strategies (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2002), 3, 49, 63, 87;
147. Rodan, "The Internet and Political Control," 74, 76, 81, 86.
148. 164+167, Deibert, Parchment, Printing and Hypermedia, 158, 164, 167;
149. Herrera, "The Politics of Bandwidth"
150. Stephen Gill, "The Global Panopticon? The Neoliberal State, Economic Life, and Democratic Surveillance," Alternatives 2 (1995): 2, 12;
151. Kalathil and Boas, "The Internet and State Control," 15-16;
152. Rodan, "The Internet and Political Control," 89;
153. see also Nina Hachigian, "China's Cyber-Strategy," Foreign Affairs 80(2) (March/April 2001): 118-133;
154. Kirshner, "Political Economy in Security Studies," 65-66.
155. This is an important theme in Benjamin J. Barber, Jihan vs. McWorld (New York: Ballentine Books, 2001), see especially xxx, xxxi, 237, 243.
156. See for example Walter S. Salant, Salant, CBS and the Battle for the Soul of Broadcast Journalism: The Memoirs of Richard S. Salant (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998);
157. Bonnie Anderson, News Flash: Journalism, Infotainment and the Bottom-Line Business of News (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004).
158. Richard A. Bitzinger, "The Globalization of the Arms Industry: The Next Proliferation Challenge," International Security 19(2) (Fall 1994): 170-198;
159. William Keller, Arm in Arm: The Political Economy of the Global Arms Trade (New York: Basic Books, 1995);
160. see also Catherine M. Alexander, "National Security Issues in a Wired World," in Digital Democracy: Policy and Politics in the Wired World, eds. Cynthia J. Alexander and Leslie A. Pal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
161. Ashton B. Carter, "Adapting US Defense to Future Needs," Survival 41(4) (Winter 1999-2000): 112, 114.
162. On the significance of the diffusion of military technology more generally, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 162.
163. See P. W. Singer, "Corporate Warriors: The Rise of Privatized Military Industry and Its Ramifications for National Security," International Security 26(3) (Winter 2001/02): 187, 193-195;
164. Deborah Avant, The Market for Force: The Consequences of Privatizing Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
165. On the deleterious consequences of materialism that is associated with capitalism, see Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1996 [1976]), 84.
166. Mustapha Kamal Pasha, "Globalization, Islam, and Resistance," in Globalization and the Politics of Resistance, ed. Barry K. Gills (London: Macmillan, 2000), 250 (quote), see also 242;
167. Michael Mousseau, "Market Civilization and Its Clash with Terror," International Security 27(3) (Winter 2002/03): 6, 19, 24;
168. Connor, "Nation-Building or Nation-Destroying?" 347.
169. Tyler Cowen, Creative Destruction: How Globalization Is Changing the World's Cultures (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 8, 9, 78, 83, 99.
170. See also Elizabeth Fox and Silvio Waisbord, "Latin Politics, Global Media," in Latin Politics, Global Media, eds. Elizabeth Fox and Silvio Waisbord (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 6, 19;
171. Silvio R. Waisbord, "The Ties that Still Bind: Media and National Cultures in Latin America," Canadian Journal of Communication 23(3) (1998): 3;
172. Charles R. Acland, Screen Traffic: Movies, Multiplexes and Global Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 18, 26.
173. John Hannigan, "The Global Entertainment Economy," in Street Protests and Fantasy Parks: Globalization, Culture and the State, eds. David R. Cameron and Janice Gross Stein (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002), 20;
174. Edward S. Herman and Robert W. McChesney, The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Global Capitalism (London: Cassell, 1997), 104.
175. Ronald J. Diebert, "Altered Worlds: Social Forces in the Hypermedia Environment," in Alexander and Pal, Digital Democracy, 37.
176. Thomas L. McPhail, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders and Trends (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2002), 99. It should be noted that globalization can be culturally uplifting as well Western film festivals such as those in Cannes and New York are important outlets for Iranian films.
177. Hamid Dabashi, Close Up: Iranian Cinema, Past, Present, and Future (London: Verso, 2001), 259, 276.
178. Herman and McChesney, The Global Media, 39, 67, 153, 155;
179. see also Vincent Cable, "The Diminished Nation-State: A Study in the Loss of Economic Power," Daedalus 124(2) (Spring 1995), 24;
180. Robert W. McChesney, "The New Global Media," The Nation, November 29, 1999;
181. Timur Kuran, "Fundamentalisms and the Economy," in Fundamentalisms and theState, eds. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appelby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 290, 299;
182. see also Nikki R. Keddie, "The New Religious Politics: Where, When and Why do 'Fundamentalisms' Appear," Comparative Studies in Society and History 40(4) (October 1998): especially 699, 700;
183. Peter Beyer, Religion and Globalization (London: Sage, 1994), 97, 105.