Tropospheric ozone changes, radiative forcing and attribution to emissions in the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP)

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 3063-3085

  Stevenson, D S ^a   Young, P J ^b,c,v   Naik, V ^b   Lamarque, J F ^d   Shindell, D T ^e   Voulgarakis, A ^f   Skeie, R B ^g   Dalsoren, S B ^g   Myhre, G ^g   Berntsen, T K ^g   Folberth, G A ^h   Rumbold, S T ^h   Collins, W J ^h,x   MacKenzie, I A ^a   Doherty, R M ^a   Zeng, G ⁱ   Van Noije, T P C ^j   Strunk, A ^j   Bergmann, D ^k   Cameron Smith, P ^k   Plummer, D A ^l   Strode, S A ^m,n   Horowitz, L ^b   Lee, Y H ^e   Szopa, S ^o   Sudo, K ^p   Nagashima, T ^q   Josse, B ^r   Cionni, I ^s   Righi, M ^t   Eyring, V ^t   Conley, A ^d   Bowman, K W ^u   Wild, O ^v   Archibald, A ^w   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^b NOAA EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^d NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (United States)

^e NASA GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR SPACE STUDIES   (United States)

^f IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^g CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH OSLO CICERO   (Norway)

^h MET OFFICE   (United Kingdom)

ⁱ NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WATER AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (New Zealand)

^j ROYAL NETHERLANDS METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE KNMI   (Netherlands)

^k LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^l ENVIRONMENT CANADA   (Canada)

^m NASA GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER   (United States)

ⁿ UNIVERSITIES SPACE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION   (United States)

^o LABORATOIRE DES SCIENCES DU CLIMAT ET DE L ENVIRONNEMENT   (France)

^p NAGOYA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^q NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES   (Japan)

^r CENTRE NATIONAL DE RECHERCHES MÉTÉOROLOGIQUES   (France)

^s ENEA   (Italy)

^t GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER DLR   (Germany)

^u CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^v LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^w UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^x UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; CARBON MONOXIDE; CLIMATE CHANGE; LIGHTNING; METHANE; NITROGEN OXIDES; OZONE; RADIATIVE FORCING; STRATOSPHERE; TROPOPAUSE; TROPOSPHERE; VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND; WATER VAPOR;

EID: 84875718937     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-13-3063-2013     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Andersson, C. and Engardt, M.: European ozone in a future climate: Importance of changes in dry deposition and isoprene emissions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D02303, doi:10.1029/2008JD011690, 2010.
2. Anfossi, D., Sandroni, S., and Viarengo, S.: Tropospheric ozone in the nineteenth century: the Moncalieri series, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 17349-17352, 1991.
3. Arneth, A., Sitch, S., Bondeau, A., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Foster, P., Gedney, N., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Prentice, I. C., Sanderson, M., Thonicke, K.,Wania, R., and Zaehle, S.: From biota to chemistry and climate: towards a comprehensive description of trace gas exchange between the biosphere and atmosphere, Biogeosciences, 7, 121-149, doi:10.5194/bg-7-121-2010, 2010.
4. Berntsen, T. K., Isaksen, I. S. A., Myhre, G., Fuglestvedt, J., Stordal, F., Larsen, T., Freckleton, R., and Shine, K. P.: Effects of anthropogenic emissions on tropospheric ozone and its radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 28101-28126, doi:10.1029/97JD02226, 1997.
5. Bowman, K., Shindell, D., Worden, H., Lamarque, J. F., Young, P. J., Stevenson, D., Qu, Z., de la Torre, M., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins, W. J., Doherty, R., Dalsøren, S., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Plummer, D., Rumbold, S., Skeie, R., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Voulgarakis, A., Zeng, G., Kulawik, S., and Worden, J.: Observational constraints on ozone radiative forcing from the Atmospheric Chemistry Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 23603-23644, doi:10.5194/acpd-12-23603-2012, 2012.
6. Cionni, I., Eyring, V., Lamarque, J. F., Randel, W. J., Stevenson, D. S., Wu, F., Bodeker, G. E., Shepherd, T. G., Shindell, D. T., and Waugh, D.W.: Ozone database in support of CMIP5 simulations: results and corresponding radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11267-11292, doi:10.5194/acp-11- 11267-2011, 2011.
7. Cooper, O. R., Parrish, D. D., Stohl, A. Trainer, M., Nédélec, P., Thouret, V., Cammas, J. P., Oltmans, S. J., Johnson, B. J., Tarasick, D., Leblanc, T., McDermid, I. S., Jaffe, D., Gao, R., Stith, J., Ryerson T., Aikin, K., Campos, T., Weinheimer, A., and Avery, M. A.: Increasing springtime ozone mixing ratios in the free troposphere over western North America, Nature, 463, 344-348, doi:10.1038/nature08708, 2010.
8. Crutzen, P. J.: Photochemical reactions initiated by and influencing ozone in the unpolluted troposphere, Tellus, 26, 47-57, 1974.
9. Crutzen, P. J. and Zimmerman, P. H.: The changing photochemistry of the troposphere, Tellus, 43, 136-151, 1991.
10. Derwent, R. G., Jenkin, M. E., and Saunders, S. M.: Photochemical ozone creation potentials for a large number of reactive hydrocarbons under European conditions, Atmos. Environ., 30, 181-199, doi:10.1016/1352-2310(95)00303-G, 1996.
11. Doherty, R. M., Wild, O., Shindell, D. T., Zeng, G., MacKenzie, I. A., Collins, W. J., Fiore, A. M., Stevenson, D. S., Dentener, F. J., Schultz, M. G., Hess, P., Derwent, R. G., and Keating, T. J.: Impacts of climate change on surface ozone and intercontinental ozone 1 pollution: A multi-model study, J. Geophys. Res., doi:10.1029/2012JD018474, in press, 2013.
12. Edwards, J. M. and Slingo, A.: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a large-scale model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 689-719, 1996.
13. Engel, A., M?obius, T., B?onisch, H., Schmidt, U., Heinz, R., Levin, I., Atlas, E., Aoki, S., Nakazawa, T., Sugawara, S., Moore, F., Hurst, D., Elkins, J., Schauffler, S., Andrews, A., and Boering, K.: Age of stratospheric air unchanged within uncertainties over the past 30 years, Nature Geosci., 2, 28-31, doi:10.1038/ngeo388, 2009.
14. Fiore, A. M., Dentener, F. J.,Wild, O., Cuvelier, C., Schultz, M. G., Hess, P., Textor, C., Schulz, M., Doherty, R. M., Horowitz, L. W., MacKenzie, I. A., Sanderson, M. G., Shindell, D. T., Stevenson, D. S., Szopa, S., Van Dingenen, R., Zeng, G., Atherton, C., Bergmann, D., Bey, I., Carmichael, G., Collins, W. J., Duncan, B. N., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Gauss, M., Gong, S., Hauglustaine, D., Holloway, T., Isaksen, I. S. A., Jacob, D. J., Jonson, J. E., Kaminski, J. W., Keating, T. J., Lupu, A., Marmer, E., Montanaro, V., Park, R. J., Pitari, G., Pringle, K. J., Pyle, J. A., Schroeder, S., Vivanco, M. G., Wind, P., Wojcik, G., Wu, S., and Zuber, A.: Multi-model Estimates of Intercontinental Source- Receptor Relationships for Ozone Pollution, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D04301, doi:10.1029/2008JD010816, 2009.
15. Fiore, A. M., Naik, V., Spracklen, D. V., Steiner, A., Unger, N., Prather, M., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P. J., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsoren, S., Eyring, V., Folberth, G. A., Ginoux, P., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., Lamarque, J. F., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., OConnor, F. M., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Shindell, D. T., Skeie, R. B., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., and Zeng, G.: Global air quality and climate, Chem. Soc. Rev., 41, 6663, doi:10.1039/c2cs35095e, 2012.
16. Fishman, J., Watson, C. E. Larsen, J. C., and Logan, J. A.: Distribution of Tropospheric Ozone Determined from Satellite Data, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 3599-3617, 1990.
17. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D. W., Haywood, J. L., J., Lowe, D. C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M., and Van Dorland, R.: Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing, in: Climate change 2007: The physical science basis, edited by: Solomon, S., Cambridge University Press, New York, 2007.
18. Fowler, D., Pilegaard, K., Sutton, M. A., Ambus, P., Raivonen, M., Duyzer, J., Simpson, D., Fagerli, H., Fuzzi, S., Schjoerring, J. K., Granier, C., Neftel, A., Isaksen, I. S. A., Laj, P., Maione, M., Monks, P. S., Burkhardt, J., Daemmgen, U., Neirynck, J., Personne, E., Wichink-Kruit, R., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Flechard, C., Tuovinen, J. P., Coyle, M., Gerosa, G., Loubet, B., Altimir, N., Gruenhage, L., Ammann, C., Cieslik, S., Paoletti, E., Mikkelsen, T. N., Ro-Poulsen, H., Cellier, P., Cape, J. N., Horvath, L., Loreto, F., Niinemets, U., Palmer, P. I., Rinne, J., Misztal, P., Nemitz, E., Nilsson, D., Pryor, S., Gallagher, M. W., Vesala, T., Skiba, U., Bruggemann, N., Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S., Williams, J., ODowd, C., Facchini, M. C., de Leeuw, G., Flossman, A., Chaumerliac, N., and Erisman, J.W.: Atmospheric composition change: Ecosystems-Atmosphere interactions, Atmos. Environ., 43, 5193-5267, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.7.068, 2009.
19. Fry, M. M., Naik, V., West, J. J., Schwarzkopf, M. D., Fiore, A. M., Collins, W. J., Dentener, F. J., Shindell, D. T., Atherton, C., Bergmann, D., Duncan, B. N., Hess, P., MacKenzie, I. A., Marmer, E., Schultz, M. G., Szopa, S., Wild, O., and Zeng, G.: The Influence of ozone precursor emissions from four world regions on tropospheric composition and radiative climate forcing, J. Geophysical Res., 117, D07306, doi:10.1029/2011JD017134, 2012.
20. Fuglestvedt, J. S., Berntsen, T. K., Isaksen, I. S. A., Mao, H., Liang, X.-Z., and Wang, W.-C.: Climatic forcing of nitrogen oxides through changes in tropospheric ozone and methane: Global model studies, Atmos. Environ., 33, 961-967, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00217-9, 1999.
21. Ganzeveld, L., Bouwman, L., Stehfest, E., Vuuren, D. P. V., Eickhout, B., and Lelieveld, J.: Impact of future land use and land cover changes on atmospheric chemistry-climate interactions, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D23301, doi:10.1029/2010JD014041, 2010.
22. Gauss, M., Myhre, G., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Isaksen, I. S. A., Berntsen, T. K., Brasseur, G. P., Dentener, F. J., Derwent, R. G., Hauglustaine, D. A., Horowitz, L. W., Jacob, D. J., Johnson, M., Law, K. S., Mickley, L. J., Muller, J.-F., Plantevin, P.-H., Pyle, J. A., Rogers, H. L., Stevenson, D. S., Sundet, J. K., van Weele, M., and Wild, O.: Radiative forcing in the 21st century due to ozone changes in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4292, doi:10.1029/2002JD002624, 2003.
23. Gauss, M., Myhre, G., Isaksen, I. S. A., Grewe, V., Pitari, G., Wild, O., Collins, W. J., Dentener, F. J., Ellingsen, K., Gohar, L. K., Hauglustaine, D. A., Iachetti, D., Lamarque, F., Mancini, E., Mickley, L. J., Prather, M. J., Pyle, J. A., Sanderson, M. G., Shine, K. P., Stevenson, D. S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Radiative forcing since preindustrial times due to ozone change in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 575-599, doi:10.5194/acp-6-575-2006, 2006.
24. GFDL Global Atmospheric Model Development Team (GFDL GAMDT), The new GFDL global atmosphere and land model AM2-LM2: Evaluation with prescribed SST simulations, J. Climate, 17, 4641-4673, doi:10.1175/JCLI-3223., 2004.
25. Hansen, J., Sato, M., and Ruedy, R.: Radiative forcing and climate response, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6831-6864, 1997.
26. Hauglustaine, D. A. and Brasseur, G. P.: Evolution of tropospheric ozone under anthropogenic activities and associated radiative forcing of climate, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 32337-32360, 2001.
27. Hegglin, M. I. and Shepherd, T. G.: Large climate-induced changes in ultraviolet index and stratosphere-to-troposphere ozone flux, Nature Geosci., 2, 687-691, doi:10.1038/ngeo604, 2009.
28. Hough, A. E. and Derwent, R. G.: Changes in the global concentration of tropospheric ozone due to human activities, Nature 344, 645-648, doi:10.1038/344645a0, 1990.
29. Hsu, J. and Prather, M. J.: Stratospheric variability and tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D06102, doi:10.1029/2008JD010942, 2009.
30. Huijnen, V., Williams, J., van Weele, M., van Noije, T., Krol, M., Dentener, F., Segers, A., Houweling, S., Peters, W., de Laat, J., Boersma, F., Bergamaschi, P., van Velthoven, P., Le Sager, P., Eskes, H., Alkemade, F., Scheele, R., Nédélec, P., and Patz, H.-W.: The global chemistry transport model TM5: description and evaluation of the tropospheric chemistry version 3.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 445-473, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-445-2010, 2010.
31. Isaksen, I. S. A., Granier, C., Myhre, G., Berntsen, T. K., Dalsøren, S. B., Gauss, M., Klimont, Z., Benestad, R., Bousquet, P., Collins, W., Cox, T., Eyring, V., Fowler, D., Fuzzi, S., Jockel, P., Laj, P., Lohmann, U., Maione, M., Monks, P., Prevot, A. S. H., Raes, F., Richter, A., Rognerud, B., Schulz, M., Shindell, D., Stevenson, D. S., Storelvmo, T., Wang, W.-C., van Weele, M., Wild, M., and Wuebbles, D.: Atmospheric Composition Change: Climate-Chemistry interactions, Atmos. Environ., 43, 5138-5192, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.8.003, 2009.
32. Johnson, C. E., Stevenson, D. S., Collins, W. J., and Derwent, R. G.: Role of climate feedback on methane and ozone studied with a coupled Ocean-Atmosphere-Chemistry model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1723-1726, 2001.
33. Kawase, H., Nagashima, T., Sudo, K., and Nozawa, T.: Future changes in tropospheric ozone under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs), Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L05801, doi:10.1029/2010GL046402, 2011.
34. Kedzie, W. K.: Ozone in Kansas Atmosphere, Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science (1872-1880), 6, 18-25, 1877.
35. Lacis, A. A.,Wuebbles, D. J., and Logan, J. A.: Radiative forcing of climate by changes in the vertical distribution of ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 9971-9981, 1990.
36. Lamarque, J.-F., Hess, P., Emmons, L., Buja, L., Washington, W., and Granier, C.: Tropospheric ozone evolution between 1890 and 1990, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D08304, doi:10.1029/2004JD005537, 2005.
37. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aardenne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., Mc- Connell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi:10.5194/acp- 10-7017-2010, 2010.
38. Lamarque, J.-F., Shindell, D. T., Josse, B., Young, P. J., Cionni, I., Eyring, V., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins,W. J., Doherty, R., Dalsoren, S., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Ghan, S. J., Horowitz, L. W., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Plummer, D., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Schulz, M., Skeie, R. B., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Voulgarakis, A., and Zeng, G.: The Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP): overview and description of models, simulations and climate diagnostics, Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 179-206, doi:10.5194/gmd-6-179-2013, 2013.
39. Lee, Y. H., Lamarque, J.-F., Flanner, M. G., Jiao, C., Shindell, D. T., Berntsen, T., Bisiaux, M. M., Cao, J., Collins, W. J., Curran, M., Edwards, R., Faluvegi, G., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L. W., Mc- Connell, J. R., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R. B., Sudo, K., Takemura, T., and Thevenon, F.: Evaluation of preindustrial to present-day black carbon and its albedo forcing from ACCMIP (Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project), Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 21713-21778, doi:10.5194/acpd-12-21713-2012, 2012.
40. Li, D. and Shine, K. P.: A 4-Dimensional Ozone Climatology for UGAMP Models, UGAMP Internal Report No. 35, http://badc.nerc.ac.uk/data/ugamp-o3- climatology, April 1995.
41. Lin, P., Fu, Q., Solomon, S., and Wallace, J. M.: Temperature Trend Patterns in Southern Hemisphere High Latitudes: Novel Indicators of Stratospheric Change, J. Climate, 22, 6325-6340, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI2971., 2009.
42. Linvill, D. E., Hooker, W. J., and Olson, B.: Ozone in Michigans environment 1876-1880, Mon. Weather Rev., 108, 1880-1891, 1980.
43. Logan, J. A.: An analysis of ozonesonde data for the troposphere: Recommendations for testing 3-D models, and development of a gridded climatology for tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16115-16149, 1999.
44. Logan, J. A., Staehelin, J., Megretskaia, I. A., Cammas, J.-P., Thouret, V., Claude, H., De Backer, H., Steinbacher, M., Scheel, H.-E., Stubi, R., Frohlich, M., and Derwent, R.: Changes in ozone over Europe: Analysis of ozone measurements from sondes, regular aircraft (MOZAIC) and alpine surface sites, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D09301, doi:10.1029/2011JD016952, 2012.
45. McLinden, C. A., Olsen, S. C., Hannegan, B., Wild, O., Prather, M. J., and Sundet, J.: Stratospheric ozone in 3-D models: A simple chemistry and the cross-tropopause flux, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 14653-14666, 2000.
46. Meinshausen, M., Smith, S. J., Calvin, K., Daniel, J. S., Kainuma, M. L. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Matsumoto, K., Montzka, S. A., Raper, S. C. B., Riahi, K., Thomson, A., Velders, G. J. M., and van Vuuren, D. P. P.: The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extensions from 1765 to 2300, Climatic Change, 109, 213-241, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0156-z, 2011.
47. Mickley, L. J., Jacob, D. J., and Rind, D.: Uncertainty in preindustrial abundance of tropospheric ozone: Implications for radiative forcing calculations, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 3389-3399, 2001.
48. Myhre, G. and Stordal, F.: Role of spatial and temporal variations in the computation of radiative forcing and GWP, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 11181-11200, 1997.
49. Myhre, G., Highwood, E. J., Shine, K. P., and Stordal, F.: New estimates of radiative forcing due to well mixed greenhouse gases, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 2715-2718, 1998.
50. Myhre, G., Shine, K. P., R?adel, G., Gauss, M., Isaksen, I. S. A., Tang, Q., Prather, M. J., Williams, J. E., van Velthoven,P., Dessens, O., Koffi, B., Szopa, S., Hoor, P., Grewe, V., Borken-Kleefeld, J., Berntsen, T. K., and Fuglestvedt, J. S.: Radiative forcing due to changes in ozone and methane caused by the transport sector, Atmos. Environ., 45, 387-394, 2011.
51. Naik, V., Voulgarakis, A., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L. W., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, M., Prather, M. J., Young, P. J., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P. J., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G. A., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., van Noije, T. P. C., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Shindell, D. T., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Preindustrial to present day changes in tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 30755-30804, doi:10.5194/acpd-12- 30755-2012, 2012.
52. Oltmans, S. J., Lefohn, A. S., Harris, J. M., Galbally, I., Scheel, H. E., Bodeker, G., Brunke, E., Claude, H., Tarasick, D., Johnson, B. J., Simmonds, P., Shadwick, D., Anlauf, K., Hayden, K., Schmidlin, F., Fujimoto, T., Akagi, K., Meyer, C., Nichol, S., Davies, J., Redondas, A., and Cuevas, E.: Long-term changes in tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Environ., 40, 3156-3173, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.1.029, 2006.
53. Oltmans, S. J., Lefohn, A. S., Shadwick, D., Harris, J. M., Scheel, H. E., Galbally, I., Tarasick, D. W., Johnson, B. J., Brunke, E.-G., Claude, H., Zeng, G., Nichol, S., Schmidlin, F., Davies, J., Cuevas, E., Redondas, A., Naoe, H., Nakano, T., and Kawasato, T.: Recent tropospheric ozone changes - A pattern dominated by slow or no growth, Atmos. Environ., 67, 331-351, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.0.057, 2013.
54. Parrish, D. D., Law, K. S., Staehelin, J., Derwent, R., Cooper, O. R., Tanimoto, H., Volz-Thomas, A., Gilge, S., Scheel, H.-E., Steinbacher, M., and Chan, E.: Long-term changes in lower tropospheric baseline ozone concentrations at northern mid-latitudes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 11485-11504, doi:10.5194/acp-12- 11485-2012, 2012.
55. Pavelin, E. G., Johnson, C. E., Rughooputh, S., and Toumi, R.: Evaluation of pre-industrial surface ozone measurements made using Sch?onbeins method, Atmos. Environ., 33, 919-929, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00257-X, 1999.
56. Pope, V. D., Gallani, M. L., Rowntree, P. R., and Stratton, R. A.: The impact of new physical parameterizations in the Hadley Centre climate model: HadAM3, Clim. Dyn., 16, 123-146, doi:10.1007/s003820050009, 2000.
57. Prather, M. J.: Time scales in atmospheric chemistry: Theory, GWPs for CH4 and CO, and runaway growth, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2597-2600, doi:10.1029/96GL02371, 1996.
58. Prather, M. J., Ehhalt, D., Dentener, F., Derwent, R., Dlugokencky, E., Holland, E., Isaksen, I., Katima, J., Kirchoff, V., Matson, P., Midgley, P. and Wang, M.: Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases, in: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Houghton, J. T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D. J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P. J., Dai, X., Maskell, K., and Johnson, C. A., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 329-287, 2001.
59. Prather, M. J., Zhu, X., Tang, Q., Hsu, J., and Neu, J. L.:An atmospheric chemist in search of the tropopause, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D04306, doi:10.1029/2010JD014939, 2011.
60. Prinn, R. G., Weiss, R. F., Fraser, P. J., Simmonds, P. G., Cunnold, D. M., Alyea, F. N., ODoherty, S., Salameh, P., Miller, B. R., Huang, J.,Wang, R. H. J., Hartley, D. E., Harth, C., Steele, L. P., Sturrock, G., Midgley, P. M., and McCulloch, A.: A history of chemically and radiatively important gases in air deduced from ALE/GAGE/AGAGE, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 17751- 17792, 2000.
61. Ramanathan, V. and Dickinson, R. E.: Role of stratsospheric ozone in the zonal and seasonal radiative energy balance of the Earthtroposphere system, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1084-1104, 1979.
62. Ramaswamy, V., Boucher, O., Haigh, J., Hauglustaine, D., Haywood, J., Myhre, G., Nakajima, T., Shi, G. Y., and Solomon, S.: Radiative forcing of climate change, in: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Houghton, J. T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D. J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P. J., Dai, X., Maskell, K., and Johnson, C. A., 349-416, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 2001.
63. Ray, E. A., Moore, F. L., Rosenlof, K. H., Davis, S. M., Boenisch, H., Morgenstern, O., Smale, D., Rozanov, E., Hegglin, M., Pitari, G., Mancini, E., Braesicke, P., Butchart, N., Hardiman, S., Li, F., Shibata, K., and Plummer, D. A.: Evidence for changes in stratospheric transport and mixing over the past three decades based on multiple data sets and tropical leaky pipe analysis, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D21304, doi:10.1029/2010JD014206, 2010.
64. Rubin, M. B.: The History of Ozone. The Sch?nbein Period, 1839- 1868, Bull. Hist. Chem., 26, 40-56, 2001.
65. Sanderson, M. G., Collins,W. J., Hemming, D. L., and Betts, R. A.: Stomatal conductance changes due to increasing carbon dioxide levels: projected impact on surface ozone levels, Tellus B, 59, 404, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.007. 00277., 2007.
66. Sayer, A. M., Poulsen, C. A., Arnold, C., Campmany, E., Dean, S., Ewen, G. B. L., Grainger, R. G., Lawrence, B. N., Siddans, R., Thomas, G. E., and Watts, P. D.: Global retrieval of ATSR cloud parameters and evaluation (GRAPE): dataset assessment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3913-3936, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3913- 2011, 2011.
67. Schumann, U. and Huntrieser, H.: The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3823-3907, doi:10.5194/acp-7-3823-2007, 2007.
68. Shindell, D. T., Faluvegi, G., Bell, N., and Schmidt, G.: An emissions-based view of climate forcing by methane and tropospheric ozone, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L04803, doi:10.1029/2004GL021900, 2005.
69. Shindell, D. T., Faluvegi, G., Koch, D. M., Schmidt, G. A., Unger, N., and Bauer, S. E.: Improved attribution of climate forcing to emissions, Science, 326, 716-718, doi:10.1126/science.1174760, 2009.
70. Shindell, D. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Schulz, M., Flanner, M., Jiao, C., Chin, M., Young, P., Lee, Y. H., Rotstayn, L., Milly, G., Faluvegi, G., Balkanski, Y., Collins, W. J., Conley, A. J., Dalsoren, S., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L., Liu, X., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., Voulgarakis, A., and Yoon, J.-H.: Radiative forcing in the ACCMIP historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 21105-21210, doi:10.5194/acpd-12-21105-2012, 2012.
71. Sitch, S., Cox, P. M., Collins, W. J., and Huntingford, C.: Indirect radiative forcing of climate change through ozone effects on the land-carbon sink, Nature, 448, 791-795, doi:10.1038/nature06059, 2007.
72. Skeie, R. B., Berntsen, T. K., Myhre, G., Tanaka, K., Kvalevag, M. M., and Hoyle, C. R.: Anthropogenic radiative forcing time series from pre-industrial times until 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11827-11857, doi:10.5194/acp-11-11827-2011, 2011.
73. SPARC-CCMVal, SPARC Report on the Evaluation of Chemistry- Climate Models, edited by: Eyring, V., Shepherd, T. G., and Waugh, D. W., SPARC Report No. 5, WCRP-132, WMO/TDNo. 1526, http://www.sparc-climate.org/publications/ sparc-reports/sparc-report-no5 (last access: October 2012), 2010.
74. Staehelin, J., Thudium, J., Buehler, R., Volz-Thomas, A., and Graber, W.: Trends in surface ozone concentrations at Arosa (Switzerland), Atmos. Environ., 28, 75-87, 1994.
75. Stamnes, K., Tsay, S. C., Wiscombe, W., and Jayaweera, K.: Numerically Stable Algorithm For Discrete-Ordinate-Method Radiative-Transfer In Multiple-Scattering And Emitting Layered Media, Appl. Optics, 27, 2502-2509, 1988.
76. Stevenson, D. S., Doherty, R. M., Sanderson, M. G., Johnson, C. E., Collins,W. J., and Derwent, R. G.: Impacts of climate change and variability on tropospheric ozone and its precursors, Faraday Discuss., 130, 41-57, doi:10.1039/b417412g, 2005.
77. Stevenson, D. S., Dentener, F. J., Schultz, M. G., Ellingsen, K., van Noije, T. P. C., Wild, O., Zeng, G., Amann, M., Atherton, C. S., Bell, N., Bergmann, D. J., Bey, I., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W. J., Derwent, R. G., Doherty, R. M., Drevet, J., Eskes, H. J., Fiore, A. M., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D. A., Horowitz, L. W., Isaksen, I. S. A., Krol, M. C., Lamarque, J.-F., Lawrence, M. G., Montanaro, V., Muller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Pyle, J. A., Rast, S., Rodriguez, J. M., Sanderson, M. G., Savage, N. H., Shindell, D. T., Strahan, S. E., Sudo, K., and Szopa, S.: Multimodel ensemble simulations of present-day and near-future tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D08301, doi:10.1029/2005JD006338, 2006.
78. Stohl, A., Bonasoni, P., Cristofanelli, P., Collins, W., Feichter, J., Frank, A., Forster, C., Gerasopoulos, E., Gaggeler, H., James, P., Kentarchos, T., Kromp-Kolb, H., Kruger, B., Land, C., Meloen, J., Papayannis, A., Priller, A., Seibert, P., Sprenger, M., Roelofs, G. J., Scheel, H. E., Schnabel, C., Siegmund, P., Tobler, L., Trickl, T., Wernli, H., Wirth, V., Zanis, P., and Zerefos, C.: Stratosphere-troposphere exchange: A review, and what we have learned from STACCATO, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8516, doi:10.1029/2002JD002490, 2003.
79. Szopa, S, Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Bekki, S., Cugnet, D., Fortems- Cheiney, A., Turquety, S., Cozic, A., Deandreis, C., Hauglustaine, D., Idelkadi, A., Lathiere, J., Lefevre, F., Marchand, M., Vuolo, R., Yan, N., and Dufresne, J.-L.: Aerosol and Ozone changes as forcing for climate evolution between 1850 and 2100, Climate Dynamics, doi:10.1007/s00382-012-1408-y, 2012.
80. Thouret, V., Cammas, J.-P., Sauvage, B., Athier, G., Zbinden, R., Nédélec, P., Simon, P., and Karcher, F.: Tropopause referenced ozone climatology and inter-annual variability (1994-2003) from the MOZAIC programme, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1033-1051, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1033-2006, 2006.
81. Tian, W. and Chipperfield, M. P.: A new coupled chemistry-climate model for the stratosphere: The importance of coupling for future O3-climate predictions, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 281-303, doi:10.1256/qj.04.05, 2005.
82. Tilmes, S., Lamarque, J.-F., Emmons, L. K., Conley, A., Schultz, M. G., Saunois, M., Thouret, V., Thompson, A. M., Oltmans, S. J., Johnson, B., and Tarasick, D.: Technical Note: Ozonesonde climatology between 1995 and 2011: description, evaluation and applications, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 7475- 7497, doi:10.5194/acp-12-7475-2012, 2012.
83. van Vuuren, D. P., Edmonds, J., Kainuma, M., Riahi, K., Thomson, A., Hibbard, K., Hurtt, G. C., Kram, T., Krey, V., Lamarque, J.- F., Masui, T., Meinshausen, M., Nakicenovic, N., Smith, S. J., and Rose, S. K.: The representative concentration pathways: an overview, Climatic Change, 109, 5-31, doi:10.1007/s10584-011- 0148-z, 2011.
84. Volz, A. and Kley, D.: Evaluation of the Montsouris series of ozone measurements made in the nineteenth century, Nature, 332, 240- 242, doi:10.1038/332240a0, 1988.
85. von Hardenberg, J., Vozella, L., Tomasi, C., Vitale, V., Lupi, A., Mazzola, M., van Noije, T. P. C., Strunk, A., and Provenzale, A.: Aerosol optical depth over the Arctic: a comparison of ECHAMHAM and TM5 with ground-based, satellite and reanalysis data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 6953-6967, doi:10.5194/acp-12-6953-2012, 2012.
86. Voulgarakis, A., Naik, V., Lamarque, J.-F., Shindell, D. T., Young, P. J., Prather, M. J.,Wild, O., Field, R. D., Bergmann, D., Cameron- Smith, P., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R. M., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G. A., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S. A., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Analysis of present day and future OH and methane lifetime in the ACCMIP simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2563-2587, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2563- 2013, 2013.
87. Walters, D. N., Best, M. J., Bushell, A. C., Copsey, D., Edwards, J. M., Falloon, P. D., Harris, C. M., Lock, A. P., Manners, J. C., Morcrette, C. J., Roberts, M. J., Stratton, R. A., Webster, S., Wilkinson, J. M., Willett, M. R., Boutle, I. A., Earnshaw, P. D., Hill, P. G., MacLachlan, C., Martin, G. M., Moufouma-Okia,W., Palmer, M. D., Petch, J. C., Rooney, G. G., Scaife, A. A., and Williams, K. D.: The Met Office Unified Model Global Atmosphere 3.0/3.1 and JULES Global Land 3.0/3.1 configurations, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 919-941, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-919-2011, 2011.
88. Wang, Y. and Jacob, D. J.: Anthropogenic forcing on tropospheric ozone and OH since preindustrial times, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31123-31135, 1998.
89. West, J. J., Fiore, A. M., Naik, V., Horowitz, L. W., Schwarzkopf, M. D., and Mauzerall, D. L.: Ozone air quality and radiative forcing consequences of changes in ozone precursor emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L06806, doi:10.1029/2006GL029173, 2007.
90. Wilcox, L. J., Hoskins, B. J. and Shine, K. P.: A global blended tropopause based on ERA data. Part II: Trends and tropical broadening, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 138, 576-584, doi:10.1002/qj.910, 2012.
91. Wild, O., Fiore, A. M., Shindell, D. T., Doherty, R. M., Collins, W. J., Dentener, F. J., Schultz, M. G., Gong, S., MacKenzie, I. A., Zeng, G., Hess, P., Duncan, B. N., Bergmann, D. J., Szopa, S., Jonson, J. E., Keating, T. J., and Zuber, A.: Modelling future changes in surface ozone: a parameterized approach, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 2037-2054, doi:10.5194/acp-12-2037- 2012, 2012.
92. Wilson, R. C., Fleming, Z. L., Monks, P. S., Clain, G., Henne, S., Konovalov, I. B., Szopa, S., and Menut, L.: Have primary emission reduction measures reduced ozone across Europe? An analysis of European rural background ozone trends 1996-2005, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 437-454, doi:10.5194/acp-12-437- 2012, 2012.
93. Wolff, E. W.: Greenhouse gases in the Earth system: a palaeoclimate perspective, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. London A, 369, 2133- 2147, 2011.
94. Wu, S., Mickley, L. J., Kaplan, J. O., and Jacob, D. J.: Impacts of changes in land use and land cover on atmospheric chemistry and air quality over the 21st century, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 1597-1609, doi:10.5194/acp-12-1597- 2012, 2012.
95. Young, P. J., Archibald, A. T., Bowman, K. W., Lamarque, J.-F., Naik, V., Stevenson, D. S., Tilmes, S., Voulgarakis, A., Wild, O., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R. M., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R. B., Shindell, D. T., Strode, S. A., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Pre-industrial to end 21st century projections of tropospheric ozone from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2063-2090, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2063-2013, 2013.
96. Young, P. J., Rosenlof, K. H., Solomon, S., Sherwood, S. C., Fu, Q., and Lamarque, J.-F.: Changes in Stratospheric Temperatures and Their Implications for Changes in the Brewer- Dobson Circulation, 1979-2005, J. Clim., 25, 1759-1772, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI4048., 2012.
97. Zeng, G. and Pyle, J. A.: Changes in tropospheric ozone between 2000 and 2100 modeled in a chemistry-climate model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1392, doi:10.1029/2002GL016708, 2003.
98. Zeng, G., Morgenstern, O., Braesicke, P., and Pyle, J. A.: Impact of stratospheric ozone recovery on tropospheric ozone and its budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L09805, doi:10.1029/2010GL042812, 2010.
99. Zhong, W., Osprey, S. M., Gray, L. J., and Haigh, J. D.: Influence of the prescribed solar spectrum on calculations of atmospheric temperature, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L22813, doi:10.1029/2008GL035993, 2008.