Religion and support for democracy: A cross-national test of the mediating mechanisms

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 43, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 375-397

  Bloom, Pazit Ben Nun ^a   Arikan, Gizem ^b  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^b YASAR UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875140360     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: 14692112     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123412000427     Document Type: Review

References (251)

1. Theodor W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel J. Levinson and Nevitt R. Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper & Row, 1950);
2. James L. Gibson, 'The Political Consequences of Intolerance: Cultural Conformity and Political Freedom', American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 338-56;
3. Bruce Hunsberger, 'Religion and Prejudice: The Role of Religious Fundamentalism, Quest and Right-Wing Authoritarianism', Journal of Social Issues, 51 (1995), 113-29;
4. Rodney Stark, 'Reconceptualizing Religion, Magic, and Science', Review of Religious Research, 43 (2001), 101-20;
5. Vyacheslav Karpov, 'Tolerance in the United States and Poland', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41 (2002), 267-88.
6. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000);
7. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
8. Katherine Meyer, Daniel Tope and Anne M. Price, 'Religion and Support for Democracy: A Cross-national Examination', Sociological Spectrum, 28 (2008), 625-53;
9. Jacob R. Neiheisel, Paul A. Djupe and Anand E. Sokhey, 'Veni, Vidi, Disseri: Churches and the Promise of Democratic Deliberation', American Politics Research, 20 (2008), 1-31.
10. Scott R. Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000);
11. Daniel Philpott, 'Explaining the Political Ambivalence of Religion', American Political Science Review, 101 (2007), 505-25.
12. James L. Guth, Ted G. Jelen, Lyman A. Kellstedt, Corwin E. Smidt and Kenneth D. Wald, 'The Politics of Religion in America: Issues for Investigation', American Politics Quarterly, 16 (1988), 357-97;
13. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt. 'Religious Worldviews and Political Philosophies: Capturing Theory in the Grand Manner through Empirical Data', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), 216-31;
14. Lyman A. Kellstedt, John C. Green, James L. Guth and Corwin E. Smidt, 'Is There a Culture War? Religion and the 1996 Election' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 1997);
15. Corwin E. Smidt, Lyman A. Kellstedt and James L. Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics: Explanatory Theories and Associated Analytical and Measurement Issues', in Corwin Smidt, Lyman A. Kellsted, and James L. Guth, eds, Oxford Handbook on Religion and American Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 3-42.
16. Pazit Ben-Nun Bloom and Gizem Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword: The Differential Effect of Religious Belief and Religious Social Context on Attitudes towards Democracy', Political Behavior, 34 (2012), 249-76;
17. Pazit Ben-Nun Bloom and Gizem Arikan, 'Priming Religious Belief and Religious Social Behaviour Affect Support for Democracy', International Journal of Public Opinion Research (forthcoming).
18. Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson and Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality.
19. Pippa Norris, Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
20. We define intrinsic support for democracy as support based on an appreciation of the political freedoms and equal rights that democracy embodies when valued as an end in itself. See Michael Bratton and Robert Mattes, 'Support for Democracy in Africa: Intrinsic or Instrumental?' British Journal of Political Science, 31 (2001), 447-74, p. 448.
21. Robert N. Bellah, 'The New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis of Modernity', in Charles Y. Bloch and Robert N. Bellah, eds, The New Religious Consciousness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), pp. 133-52;
22. David E. Campbell, 'Religious Threat in Contemporary Presidential Elections', Journal of Politics, 68 (2006), 104-15.
23. Kenneth D. Wald and Corwin E. Smidt, 'Measurement Strategies in the Study of Religion and Politics', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 26-49;
24. Kellstedt, Green, Guth and Smidt, 'Is There a Culture War?'; Smidt, Kellstedt and Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics'.
25. Laurence A. Kotler-Berkowitz, 'Religion and Voting Behaviour in Great Britain: A Reassessment', British Journal of Political Science, 31 (2001), 523-54;
26. Paul Dekker and Loek Halman, The Values of Volunteering: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003).
27. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
28. Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson and Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality; Gibson, 'The Political Consequences of Intolerance'; Karpov, 'Tolerance in the United States and Poland'.
29. Neiheisel, Djupe and Sokhey, 'Veni, Vidi, Disseri'.
30. Putnam, Bowling Alone.
31. Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
32. Bellah, 'The New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis of Modernity'; Yochanan Peres and Eppie Yuchtman-Yaar, Trends in Israeli Democracy: The Public's View (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992);
33. Campbell, 'Religious Threat in Contemporary Presidential Elections'.
34. Shalom Schwartz, 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries', in Mark P. Zanna, ed., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Academic Press, 1992), pp. 1-65.
35. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
36. Shalom Schwartz and Sipke Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions', Social Psychology Quarterly, 58 (1995), 88-107, p. 92.
37. Milton Rokeach, 'Value Systems and Religion', Review of Religious Research, 11 (1969), 2-23;
38. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions'; Sonia Roccas and Shalom Schwartz, 'Church-State Relations and the Associations of Religiosity with Values: A Study of Catholics in Six Countries', Cross-Cultural Research, 31 (1997), 356-75;
39. Sonia Roccas, 'Religion and Value Systems', Journal of Social Issues, 61 (2005), 747-59.
40. Vassilis Saroglou, Vanessa Delpierre and Rebecca Dernelle, 'Values and Religiosity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Schwartz's Model', Personality and Individual Differences, 37 (2004), 721-34.
41. Ronald Inglehart, 'Postmodernization Erodes Respect for Authority, but Increases Support for Democracy', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
42. Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954);
43. Kenneth D. Wald, Dennis E. Owen and Samuel S. Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities', American Political Science Review, 82 (1988), 531-48;
44. Paul A. Djupe and Christopher G. Gilbert, 'The Resourceful Believer: Generating Civic Skills in Church', Journal of Politics, 68 (2006), 116-27.
45. Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, eds, Religion and Politics in Comparative Perspective: The One, the Few, and the Many (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
46. Christopher J. Anderson and Christine A. Guillory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction With Democracy', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81, p. 72.
47. William Mishler and Richard Rose, 'Trust, Distrust and Skepticism: Popular Evaluations of Civil and Political Institutions in Post-Communist Societies', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 418-51;
48. Clive S. Bean, 'Citizen Confidence in Social and Political Institutions in a Changing World' (paper presented at the Social Change in the Twenty-first Century Conference, Brisbane, 2003);
49. Pierre Brechon, 'Influence of Religious Integration on Attitudes: A Comparative Analysis of European Countries', Revue Franc aise de Sociologie, 45 (2004/5), 26-48.
50. Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'Mapping Political Support in the 1990s: A Global Analysis', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 31-56.
51. David Easton, 'A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support' British Journal of Political Science, 5 (1975), 435-57;
52. Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1999);
53. Pippa Norris, Democratic Deficit: Critical Citizens Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
54. Ronald Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy-And How Can We Measure it?' Political Science and Politics, 36 (2003), 51-7;
55. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, 'Political Culture and Democracy: Analyzing Cross-Level Linkages', Comparative Politics, 36 (2003), 61-79;
56. Christian Welzel, 'Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes? Testing Attainment and Sustainment Effects on Democracy', International Political Science Review, 28 (2007), 397-424.
57. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963);
58. Easton, 'A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support'; Russell J. Dalton, 'Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies', in Norris, ed., Critical Citizens, pp. 57-77;
59. Diamond, Developing Democracy; Michael Bratton, Robert Mattes and E. Gyimah-Boadi, Public Opinion, Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
60. Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy'; Norris, Democratic Deficit.
61. Alejandro Moreno and Christian Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy: A Global Comparison' (presented at the Mapping and Tracking Global Cultural Change Conference, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of Califortnia, Irvine, 2011, available at http://www.democracy.uci.edu/files/ democracy/docs/conferences/2011/Moreno%20Welzel-Chapter.pdf, Accessed 13.08.2012.
62. Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy?' Andreas Schedler and Rodolofo Sarsfield, 'Democrats with Adjectives: Linking Direct and Indirect Measures of Democratic Support', European Journal of Political Research, 46 (2007), 637-59;
63. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
64. Schedler and Sarsfeld, 'Democrats with Adjectives'.
65. Bratton and Mattes, 'Support for Democracy in Africa'.
66. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy'; Norris, Democratic Deficit.
67. Klingemann, 'Mapping Political Support in the 1990s'; Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy'; Norris, Democratic Deficit.
68. On 'critical citizens', see Pippa Norris, 'Institutional Explanations for Political Trust', in Norris, ed., Critical Citizens, pp. 217-35;
69. Norris, Democratic Deficit; Lingling Qi and Doh Chull Shin, 'How Mass Political Attitudes Affect Democratization: Exploring the Facilitating Role Critical Democrats Play in the Process', International Political Science Review, 32 (2011), 245-62.
70. Norris, Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Deficit; Welzel, 'Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes?'.
71. Elie Kedourie, Democracy and Arab Political Culture (London: Frank Cass, 1994);
72. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996);
73. Michael Radu, 'The Burden of Eastern Orthodoxy', Orbis, 42 (1998), 283-300;
74. Mark Tessler, 'Do Islamic Orientations Influence Attitudes toward Democracy in the Arab World? Evidence from Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Algeria', International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43 (2002), 229-49;
75. Michael Bratton, 'Briefing: Islam, Democracy, and Public Opinion in Africa', African Affairs, 102 (2003), 493-501;
76. Christopher Marsh, 'Orthodox Christianity, Civil Society, and Russian Democracy', Demokratizatsiya, 13 (2005), 449-62.
77. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions'.
78. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions'.
79. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
80. Saroglou, Delpierre, and Dernelle, 'Values and Religiosity'.
81. Wald, Owen and Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities'.
82. Ersin Kalaycioglu, 'Islam, Secularism, and Democracy: Insights from Turkish Politics' (paper presented at the 67th Annual Midwest Conference, Chicago, 2010).
83. Djupe and Gilbert, 'The Resourceful Believer'; Ted G. Jelen and Marthe A. Chandler, 'Communalism, Associationalism, and the Politics of Lifestyle', Review of Religious Research, 38 (1996), 142-58;
84. Wald, Owen and Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities'.
85. David Kaplan and Pamela R. Elliot, 'A Didactic Example of Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling Applicable to the Study of Organizations', Structural Equation Modeling, 4 (1997), 1-24.
86. See Meyer, Tope and Price, 'Religion and Support for Democracy'.
87. Russell J. Dalton and Nhu-Ngoc T. Ong, 'Authority Orientations and Democratic Attitudes: A Test of the Asian Values Hypothesis', Japanese Journal of Political Science, 6 (2005), 1-21.
88. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy', p. 1;
89. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
90. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy'.
91. Loue E. Hicks, 'Some Properties of Ipsative, Normative and Forced-Choice Normative Measures', Psychological Bulletin, 74 (1970), 167-84.
92. Ronald Fischer, 'Standardization to Account for Cross-Cultural Response Bias', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35 (2004), 263-84.
93. Fons J.R. Van de Vijver and Kwok Leung, Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1997).
94. GDP-PPP: Gross domestic product at purchasing power parity.
95. Rex B. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 2nd edn (New York: The Guilford Press, 2005).
96. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
97. In the case of non-instrumental attitudes towards democracy (Model 1e), self-expression values have a positive effect while the effect of rational values is found to be null.
98. It seems that placing emphasis on material and physical security, but not traditionalism per se, is associated with a democratic understanding that deems bread and butter issues or redistribution as being essential to democracy.
99. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling; David P. MacKinnon, Amanda J. Fairchild and Matthew S. Fritz, 'Mediation Analysis', Annual Review of Psychology, 58 (2007), 593-614.
100. Specifying and testing alternative path models does not necessarily indicate the correctness of the causal model but may at least provide a statistical basis for the evaluation of a theory-driven model with other alternative specifications. See Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, p. 99.
101. Jean Piaget and Anne-Marie Weil, 'The Development in Children of the Idea of Homeland and Relations with Other Countries', International Social Science Bulletin, 3 (1951), 561-78;
102. Irving E. Sigel and Rodney R. Cocking, Cognitive Development from Childhood to Adolescence: A Constructivist Perspective (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977);
103. Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi and Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Religious Behavior, Belief, and Experience (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 147.
104. Schwartz, 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values'.
105. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, pp. 142-3.
106. Unfortunately, the number of observations for Hindus and Jews (in both waves), as well as Buddhists (in Wave 4) were too low to produce reliable results with multilevel analysis.
107. Duncan McCargo, 'Buddhism, Democracy, and Identity in Thailand', Democratization, 11 (2004), 155-70.
108. Alfred Stepan, 'Religion, Democracy and the "Twin Tolerations"', Journal of Democracy, 11 (2000), 37-57, p. 53.
109. Gabriela Catterberg and Alejandro Moreno, 'The Individual Bases of Political Trust: Trends in New and Established Democracies', International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18 (2006), 31-48.
110. Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture; Adam Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
111. Norris, Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Deficit.
112. Qi and Chull Shin, 'How Mass Political Attitudes Affect Democratization'.
113. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
114. Kenneth D. Wald and Clyde Wilcox, 'Getting Religion: Has Political Science Rediscovered the Faith Factor?' American Political Science Review, 100 (2006): 523-29;
115. Mirjam Kunkler and Julia Leininger, 'The Multi-Faceted Role of Religious Actors in Democratization Processes: Empirical Evidence from Five Young Democracies', Democratization, 16 (2009), 1058-92;
116. Smidt, Kellstedt and Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics'.
117. Theodor W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel J. Levinson and Nevitt R. Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper & Row, 1950);
118. James L. Gibson, 'The Political Consequences of Intolerance: Cultural Conformity and Political Freedom', American Political Science Review, 86 (1992), 338-56;
119. Bruce Hunsberger, 'Religion and Prejudice: The Role of Religious Fundamentalism, Quest and Right-Wing Authoritarianism', Journal of Social Issues, 51 (1995), 113-29;
120. Rodney Stark, 'Reconceptualizing Religion, Magic, and Science', Review of Religious Research, 43 (2001), 101-20;
121. Vyacheslav Karpov, 'Tolerance in the United States and Poland', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41 (2002), 267-88.
122. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000);
123. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
124. Katherine Meyer, Daniel Tope and Anne M. Price, 'Religion and Support for Democracy: A Cross-national Examination', Sociological Spectrum, 28 (2008), 625-53;
125. Jacob R. Neiheisel, Paul A. Djupe and Anand E. Sokhey, 'Veni, Vidi, Disseri: Churches and the Promise of Democratic Deliberation', American Politics Research, 20 (2008), 1-31.
126. Scott R. Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000);
127. Daniel Philpott, 'Explaining the Political Ambivalence of Religion', American Political Science Review, 101 (2007), 505-25.
128. James L. Guth, Ted G. Jelen, Lyman A. Kellstedt, Corwin E. Smidt and Kenneth D. Wald, 'The Politics of Religion in America: Issues for Investigation', American Politics Quarterly, 16 (1988), 357-97;
129. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt. 'Religious Worldviews and Political Philosophies: Capturing Theory in the Grand Manner through Empirical Data', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), 216-31;
130. Lyman A. Kellstedt, John C. Green, James L. Guth and Corwin E. Smidt, 'Is There a Culture War? Religion and the 1996 Election' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 1997);
131. Corwin E. Smidt, Lyman A. Kellstedt and James L. Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics: Explanatory Theories and Associated Analytical and Measurement Issues', in Corwin Smidt, Lyman A. Kellsted, and James L. Guth, eds, Oxford Handbook on Religion and American Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 3-42.
132. Pazit Ben-Nun Bloom and Gizem Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword: The Differential Effect of Religious Belief and Religious Social Context on Attitudes towards Democracy', Political Behavior, 34 (2012), 249-76;
133. Pazit Ben-Nun Bloom and Gizem Arikan, 'Priming Religious Belief and Religious Social Behaviour Affect Support for Democracy', International Journal of Public Opinion Research (forthcoming).
134. Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson and Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality.
135. Pippa Norris, Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
136. We define intrinsic support for democracy as support based on an appreciation of the political freedoms and equal rights that democracy embodies when valued as an end in itself. See Michael Bratton and Robert Mattes, 'Support for Democracy in Africa: Intrinsic or Instrumental?' British Journal of Political Science, 31 (2001), 447-74, p. 448.
137. Robert N. Bellah, 'The New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis of Modernity', in Charles Y. Bloch and Robert N. Bellah, eds, The New Religious Consciousness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), pp. 133-52;
138. David E. Campbell, 'Religious Threat in Contemporary Presidential Elections', Journal of Politics, 68 (2006), 104-15.
139. Kenneth D. Wald and Corwin E. Smidt, 'Measurement Strategies in the Study of Religion and Politics', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 26-49;
140. Kellstedt, Green, Guth and Smidt, 'Is There a Culture War?';
141. Smidt, Kellstedt and Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics'.
142. Laurence A. Kotler-Berkowitz, 'Religion and Voting Behaviour in Great Britain: A Reassessment', British Journal of Political Science, 31 (2001), 523-54;
143. Paul Dekker and Loek Halman, The Values of Volunteering: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003).
144. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
145. Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson and Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality;
146. Gibson, 'The Political Consequences of Intolerance';
147. Karpov, 'Tolerance in the United States and Poland'.
148. Neiheisel, Djupe and Sokhey, 'Veni, Vidi, Disseri'.
149. Putnam, Bowling Alone.
150. Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
151. Bellah, 'The New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis of Modernity';
152. Yochanan Peres and Eppie Yuchtman-Yaar, Trends in Israeli Democracy: The Public's View (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992);
153. Campbell, 'Religious Threat in Contemporary Presidential Elections'.
154. Shalom Schwartz, 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries', in Mark P. Zanna, ed., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Academic Press, 1992), pp. 1-65.
155. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
156. Shalom Schwartz and Sipke Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions', Social Psychology Quarterly, 58 (1995), 88-107, p. 92.
157. Milton Rokeach, 'Value Systems and Religion', Review of Religious Research, 11 (1969), 2-23;
158. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions';
159. Sonia Roccas and Shalom Schwartz, 'Church-State Relations and the Associations of Religiosity with Values: A Study of Catholics in Six Countries', Cross-Cultural Research, 31 (1997), 356-75;
160. Sonia Roccas, 'Religion and Value Systems', Journal of Social Issues, 61 (2005), 747-59.
161. Vassilis Saroglou, Vanessa Delpierre and Rebecca Dernelle, 'Values and Religiosity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Schwartz's Model', Personality and Individual Differences, 37 (2004), 721-34.
162. Ronald Inglehart, 'Postmodernization Erodes Respect for Authority, but Increases Support for Democracy', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
163. Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954);
164. Kenneth D. Wald, Dennis E. Owen and Samuel S. Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities', American Political Science Review, 82 (1988), 531-48;
165. Paul A. Djupe and Christopher G. Gilbert, 'The Resourceful Believer: Generating Civic Skills in Church', Journal of Politics, 68 (2006), 116-27.
166. Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, eds, Religion and Politics in Comparative Perspective: The One, the Few, and the Many (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
167. Christopher J. Anderson and Christine A. Guillory, 'Political Institutions and Satisfaction With Democracy', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 66-81, p. 72.
168. William Mishler and Richard Rose, 'Trust, Distrust and Skepticism: Popular Evaluations of Civil and Political Institutions in Post-Communist Societies', Journal of Politics, 59 (1997), 418-51;
169. Clive S. Bean, 'Citizen Confidence in Social and Political Institutions in a Changing World' (paper presented at the Social Change in the Twenty-first Century Conference, Brisbane, 2003);
170. Pierre Brechon, 'Influence of Religious Integration on Attitudes: A Comparative Analysis of European Countries', Revue Francaise de Sociologie, 45 (2004/5), 26-48.
171. Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'Mapping Political Support in the 1990s: A Global Analysis', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 31-56.
172. David Easton, 'A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support' British Journal of Political Science, 5 (1975), 435-57;
173. Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1999);
174. Pippa Norris, Democratic Deficit: Critical Citizens Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
175. Ronald Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy-And How Can We Measure it?' Political Science and Politics, 36 (2003), 51-7;
176. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, 'Political Culture and Democracy: Analyzing Cross-Level Linkages', Comparative Politics, 36 (2003), 61-79;
177. Christian Welzel, 'Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes? Testing Attainment and Sustainment Effects on Democracy', International Political Science Review, 28 (2007), 397-424.
178. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963);
179. Easton, 'A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support';
180. Russell J. Dalton, 'Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies', in Norris, ed., Critical Citizens, pp. 57-77;
181. Diamond, Developing Democracy;
182. Michael Bratton, Robert Mattes and E. Gyimah-Boadi, Public Opinion, Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
183. Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy';
184. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
185. Alejandro Moreno and Christian Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy: A Global Comparison' (presented at the Mapping and Tracking Global Cultural Change Conference, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of Califortnia, Irvine, 2011, available at http://www.democracy.uci.edu/files/ democracy/docs/conferences/2011/Moreno%20Welzel-Chapter.pdf, Accessed 13.08.2012.
186. Inglehart, 'How Strong is Mass Support for Democracy?'
187. Andreas Schedler and Rodolofo Sarsfield, 'Democrats with Adjectives: Linking Direct and Indirect Measures of Democratic Support', European Journal of Political Research, 46 (2007), 637-59;
188. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
189. Schedler and Sarsfeld, 'Democrats with Adjectives'.
190. Bratton and Mattes, 'Support for Democracy in Africa'.
191. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy';
192. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
193. Klingemann, 'Mapping Political Support in the 1990s';
194. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy';
195. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
196. On 'critical citizens', see Pippa Norris, 'Institutional Explanations for Political Trust', in Norris, ed., Critical Citizens, pp. 217-35;
197. Norris, Democratic Deficit;
198. Lingling Qi and Doh Chull Shin, 'How Mass Political Attitudes Affect Democratization: Exploring the Facilitating Role Critical Democrats Play in the Process', International Political Science Review, 32 (2011), 245-62.
199. Norris, Critical Citizens;
200. Norris, Democratic Deficit;
201. Welzel, 'Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes?'.
202. Elie Kedourie, Democracy and Arab Political Culture (London: Frank Cass, 1994);
203. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996);
204. Michael Radu, 'The Burden of Eastern Orthodoxy', Orbis, 42 (1998), 283-300;
205. Mark Tessler, 'Do Islamic Orientations Influence Attitudes toward Democracy in the Arab World? Evidence from Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Algeria', International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43 (2002), 229-49;
206. Michael Bratton, 'Briefing: Islam, Democracy, and Public Opinion in Africa', African Affairs, 102 (2003), 493-501;
207. Christopher Marsh, 'Orthodox Christianity, Civil Society, and Russian Democracy', Demokratizatsiya, 13 (2005), 449-62.
208. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions'.
209. Schwartz and Huismans, 'Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions'.
210. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
211. Saroglou, Delpierre, and Dernelle, 'Values and Religiosity'.
212. Wald, Owen and Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities'.
213. Ersin Kalaycioglu, 'Islam, Secularism, and Democracy: Insights from Turkish Politics' (paper presented at the 67th Annual Midwest Conference, Chicago, 2010).
214. Djupe and Gilbert, 'The Resourceful Believer';
215. Ted G. Jelen and Marthe A. Chandler, 'Communalism, Associationalism, and the Politics of Lifestyle', Review of Religious Research, 38 (1996), 142-58;
216. Wald, Owen and Hill, 'Churches as Political Communities'.
217. David Kaplan and Pamela R. Elliot, 'A Didactic Example of Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling Applicable to the Study of Organizations', Structural Equation Modeling, 4 (1997), 1-24.
218. See Meyer, Tope and Price, 'Religion and Support for Democracy'.
219. Russell J. Dalton and Nhu-Ngoc T. Ong, 'Authority Orientations and Democratic Attitudes: A Test of the Asian Values Hypothesis', Japanese Journal of Political Science, 6 (2005), 1-21.
220. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy', p. 1;
221. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
222. Moreno and Welzel, 'How Values Shape People's Views of Democracy'.
223. Loue E. Hicks, 'Some Properties of Ipsative, Normative and Forced-Choice Normative Measures', Psychological Bulletin, 74 (1970), 167-84.
224. Ronald Fischer, 'Standardization to Account for Cross-Cultural Response Bias', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35 (2004), 263-84.
225. Fons J.R. Van de Vijver and Kwok Leung, Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1997).
226. GDP-PPP: Gross domestic product at purchasing power parity.
227. Rex B. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 2nd edn (New York: The Guilford Press, 2005).
228. Ben-Nun Bloom and Arikan, 'A Two-Edged Sword'.
229. In the case of non-instrumental attitudes towards democracy (Model 1e), self-expression values have a positive effect while the effect of rational values is found to be null.
230. It seems that placing emphasis on material and physical security, but not traditionalism per se, is associated with a democratic understanding that deems bread and butter issues or redistribution as being essential to democracy.
231. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling;
232. David P. MacKinnon, Amanda J. Fairchild and Matthew S. Fritz, 'Mediation Analysis', Annual Review of Psychology, 58 (2007), 593-614.
233. Specifying and testing alternative path models does not necessarily indicate the correctness of the causal model but may at least provide a statistical basis for the evaluation of a theory-driven model with other alternative specifications. See Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, p. 99.
234. Jean Piaget and Anne-Marie Weil, 'The Development in Children of the Idea of Homeland and Relations with Other Countries', International Social Science Bulletin, 3 (1951), 561-78;
235. Irving E. Sigel and Rodney R. Cocking, Cognitive Development from Childhood to Adolescence: A Constructivist Perspective (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977);
236. Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi and Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Religious Behavior, Belief, and Experience (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 147.
237. Schwartz, 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values'.
238. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, pp. 142-3.
239. Unfortunately, the number of observations for Hindus and Jews (in both waves), as well as Buddhists (in Wave 4) were too low to produce reliable results with multilevel analysis.
240. Duncan McCargo, 'Buddhism, Democracy, and Identity in Thailand', Democratization, 11 (2004), 155-70.
241. Alfred Stepan, 'Religion, Democracy and the 'Twin Tolerations", Journal of Democracy, 11 (2000), 37-57, p. 53.
242. Gabriela Catterberg and Alejandro Moreno, 'The Individual Bases of Political Trust: Trends in New and Established Democracies', International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18 (2006), 31-48.
243. Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture;
244. Adam Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
245. Norris, Critical Citizens;
246. Norris, Democratic Deficit.
247. Qi and Chull Shin, 'How Mass Political Attitudes Affect Democratization'.
248. Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
249. Kenneth D. Wald and Clyde Wilcox, 'Getting Religion: Has Political Science Rediscovered the Faith Factor?' American Political Science Review, 100 (2006): 523-29;
250. Mirjam Kunkler and Julia Leininger, 'The Multi-Faceted Role of Religious Actors in Democratization Processes: Empirical Evidence from Five Young Democracies', Democratization, 16 (2009), 1058-92;
251. Smidt, Kellstedt and Guth, 'The Role of Religion in American Politics'.