Focus on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents

Italian Journal of Pediatrics

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2013, Pages

  Spagnolo, Amedeo ^a   Giussani, Marco ^b   Ambruzzi, Amalia Maria ^c   Bianchetti, Mario ^d   Maringhini, Silvio ^e   Matteucci, Maria Chiara ^c   Menghetti, Ettore ^f   Salice, Patrizia ^g   Simionato, Loredana ^b   Strambi, Mirella ^h   Virdis, Raffaele ⁱ   Genovesi, Simonetta ^j  

^a ISFOL   (Italy)

^b Pediatra di Famiglia   (Italy)

^c BAMBINO GESÙ CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

^e Ospedale Dei Bambini 0 di Cristina ARNA S Civico di Cristina e Benefratelli   (Italy)

^f SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^g FONDAZIONE IRCCS CA GRANDA OSPEDALE MAGGIORE POLICLINICO   (Italy)

^h UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF PARMA   (Italy)

^j UNIVERSITY OF MILANO BICOCCA   (Italy)

more..

Author keywords

Blood pressure; Children; Hypertension; Obesity; Overweight; Physical activity; Prevention; Salt intake

Indexed keywords

AMLODIPINE; ATENOLOL; BENAZEPRIL; BISOPROLOL; CANDESARTAN; CHLORTALIDONE; FOSINOPRIL; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; IRBESARTAN; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; METOPROLOL; OLMESARTAN; QUINAPRIL; RAMIPRIL; VALSARTAN;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING; BODY HEIGHT; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CONVULSION; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DIET THERAPY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; FAMILY HISTORY; GENDER; HEALTH CARE FACILITY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MEDICAL HISTORY; NOMOGRAM; NUTRITION; OBESITY; PASSIVE SMOKING; PEDIATRICIAN; PHARMACEUTICAL CARE; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREVALENCE; RETINA BLOOD FLOW; REVIEW; SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE; SODIUM RESTRICTION; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ADOLESCENT; BLOOD PRESSURE DETERMINATION; BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING, AMBULATORY; BODY MASS INDEX; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHILD; DIET, SODIUM-RESTRICTED; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; LIFE STYLE; OBESITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; REFERENCE VALUES; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84875049455     PISSN: 17208424     EISSN: 18247288     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1824-7288-39-20     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Report of the task force on blood pressure control in children. Blumenthal S, Epps RT, Heavenrich R, Lauer RM, Lieberman E, Mirkin B, Mitchell SC, Boyar Naito V, O'Hare D, McFate Smith W, Tarazi RC, Upson D, Pediatrics 1977 59 797 820
2. Management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents: recommendations of the European society of hypertension. Lurbe E, Cifkova R, Cruickshank JK, Dillon MJ, Ferreira I, Invitti C, Kuznetsova T, Laurent S, Mancia G, Morales-Olivas F, Rascher W, Redon J, Schaefer F, Seeman T, Stergiou G, Wühl E, Zanchetti A, J Hypertens 2009 27 1719 1742 10.1097/HJH. 0b013e32832f4f6b 19625970
3. Tracking of blood pressure from childhood to adulthood: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Chen X, Wang Y, Circulation 2008 117 3171 3180 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.730366 18559702
4. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. National Hight Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents, Pediatrics 2004 114 555 576 15286277
5. Overweight, ethnicity, and the prevalence of hypertension in school-aged children. Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, Poffenbarger T, Portman RJ, Pediatrics 2004 113 475 482 10.1542/peds.113.3.475 14993537
6. Epidemiology of hypertension from childhood to young adulthood in black, white, and Hispanic population samples. Berenson GS, Wattigney WA, Webber LS, Public Health Rep 1996 111 suppl 2 3 6 8898760
7. Hypertension in childhood and adolescence. Jung FF, Ingelfinger JR, Pediatr Rev 1993 14 169 179 10.1542/pir.14-5-169 8493186
8. Significance of heritability in primary and secondary pediatric hypertension. Robinson RF, Batisky DL, Hayes JR, Nahata MC, Mahan JD, Am J Hypertens 2005 18 917 921 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2005.01.010 16053987
9. Characteristics of children with primary hypertension seen at a referral center. Flynn JT, Alderman MH, Pediatr Nephrol 2005 20 961 966 10.1007/s00467-005-1855-3 15864653
10. ALSPAC study team. Does breast-feeding in infancy lower blood pressure in childhood? the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children (ALSPAC). Martin RM, Ness AR, Gunnell D, Emmett P, Davey Smith G, Circulation 2004 109 1259 1266 10.1161/01.CIR.0000118468.76447.CE 14993142
11. Relation of infant diet to childhood health: seven year follow up of cohort of children in Dundee infant feeding study. Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA, Irvine L, Hau C, Howie PW, BMJ 1998 316 21 25 10.1136/bmj.316.7124.21 9451261
12. Associations of parental, birth, and early life characteristics with systolic blood pressure at 5 years of age: findings from the mater-university study of pregnancy and its outcomes. Lawlor DA, Najman JM, Sterne J, Williams GM, Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G, Circulation 2004 110 2417 2423 10.1161/01.CIR.0000145165.80130.B5 15477400
13. Distribution of 24-h ambulatory blood pressure in children: normalized reference values and role of body dimensions. Wühl E, Witte K, Soergel M, Mehls O, Schaefer F, German Working Group on Pediatric Hypertension, J Hypertens 2002 20 1995 2007 10.1097/00004872-200210000-00019 12359978
14. Home blood pressure normalcy in children and adolescents: the arsakeion school study. Stergiou GS, Yiannes NG, Rarra VC, Panagiotakos DB, J Hypertens 2007 25 1375 1379 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328122d3fc 17563558
15. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham heart study. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP, N Engl J Med 1990 322 1561 1566 10.1056/ NEJM199005313222203 2139921
16. Effect of growth on variability of left ventricular mass: assessment of allometric signals in adults and children and their capacity to predict cardiovascular risk. de Simone G, Devereux RB, Daniels SR, Koren MJ, Meyer RA, Laragh JH, J Am Coll Cardiol 1995 25 1056 1062 10.1016/0735-1097(94)00540-7 7897116
17. Effect of body size, ponderosity and blood pressure on left ventricular growth in children and young adult in the Bogalusa heart study. Urbina EM, Gidding SS, Bao W, Pickoff AS, Berdusis K, Berenson GS, Circulation 1995 91 2400 2406 10.1161/01.CIR.91.9.2400 7729027
18. Blood pressure and echocardiographic measures in children: the Bogalusa heart study. Burke GL, Arcilla RA, Culpepper WS, Webber LS, Chiang YK, Berenson GS, Circulation 1987 75 106 114 10.1161/01.CIR.75.1.106 2947739
19. White coat hypertension in childhood: evidence for end-organ effect. Kavey RE, Kveselis DA, Atallah N, Smith FC, J Pediatr 2007 150 491 497 10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.01.033 17452222
20. Ambulatory blood pressure and increased left ventricular mass in children at risk for hypertension. Richey PA, Disessa TG, Hastings MC, Somes GW, Alpert BS, Jones DP, J Pediatr 2008 152 343 348 10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.07.014 18280838
21. Normal right and left ventricular mass development during early infancy. Joyce JJ, Dickson PI, Qi N, Noble JE, Raj JU, Baylen BG, Am J Cardiol 2004 93 797 801 10.1016/j.amjcard.2003.11.063 15019899
22. Left ventricular mass change during treatment and outcome in patients with essential hypertension. Koren MJ, Ulin RJ, Koren AT, Laragh JH, Devereux RB, Am J Hypertens 2002 15 1021 1028 10.1016/S0895-7061(02)03061-3 12460696
23. Echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular hypertrophy: comparison to necropsy findings. Devereux RB, Alonso DR, Lutas EM, Gottlieb GJ, Campo E, Sachs I, Reichek N, Am J Cardiol 1986 57 450 458 10.1016/0002-9149(86)90771-X 2936235
24. Indexing left ventricular mass to account for differences in body size in children and adolescents without cardiovascular disease. Daniels SR, Kimball TR, Morrison JA, Khoury P, Meyer RA, Am J Cardiol 1995 76 699 701 10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80200-8 7572628
25. Age-specific reference intervals for indexed left ventricular mass in children. Khoury PR, Mitsnefes M, Daniels SR, Kimball TR, J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2009 22 709 714 10.1016/j.echo.2009.03.003 19423289
26. Carotid intima-media thickness and left ventricular hypertrophy in children with elevated blood pressure. Sorof JM, Alexandrov AV, Cardwell NG, Portman RJ, Pediatrics 2003 111 61 66 10.1542/peds.111.1.61 12509555
27. Carotid ultrasonography for detection of vascular abnormalities in hypertensive children. Sorof JM, Alexandrov AV, Garami Z, Turner JL, Grafe RE, Lai D, Portman RJ, Pediatr Nephrol 2003 18 1020 1024 10.1007/s00467-003-1187-0 12883975
28. Intima-media thickness and arterial elasticity in hypertensive children: controlled study. Litwin M, Trelewicz J, Wawer Z, Antoniewicz J, Wierzbicka A, Rajszys P, Grenda R, Pediatr Nephrol 2004 19 767 774 10.1007/s00467-004-1480-6 15138871
29. Effects of childhood primary hypertension on carotid intima media thickness: a matched controlled study. Lande MB, Carson LN, Roy J, Hypertension 2006 48 40 44 10.1161/01.HYP.0000227029.10536.e8 16735644
30. Increased aortic intima-media thickness: a marker of preclinical atherosclerosis in high risk children. Jarvisalo MJ, Jartti L, Nanoto-Salonen K, Irjala K, Ronnemaa T, Hartiala JJ, Celermajer DS, Raitakari OT, Circulation 2001 104 2943 2947 10.1161/hc4901.100522 11739310
31. Normative values for intima-media thickness and distensibility of large arteries in healthy adolescents. Jourdan C, Whul E, Litwin M, Fahr K, Trelewicz J, Jobs K, J Hypertens 2005 23 1707 1715 10.1097/01.hjh.0000178834.26353.d5 16093916
32. Regression of target organ damage in children and adolescents with primary hypertension. Litwin M, Niemirska A, Sladowska-Kozlowska J, Wierzbicka A, Janas R, Wawer ZT, Wisniewski A, Feber J, Pediatr Nephrol 2010 25 2489 2499 10.1007/s00467-010-1626-7 20730452
33. Randomised multicentre study of low-protein diet on the progression of chronic renal failure in children. European Study Group of Nutritional treatment of Chronic Renal Failure in Childhood. Wingen AM, Fabian-Bach C, Schaefer F, Mehls O, Lancet 1997 349 1117 1123 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09260-4 9113009
34. Strict blood-pressure control and progression of renal failure in children. The Escape Trial Group, NEJM 2009 361 1639 1650 19846849
35. Analysis of heart period and arterial pressure variability in childhood hypertension: key role of baroreflex impairment. Genovesi S, Pieruzzi F, Giussani M, Tono V, Stella A, Porta A, Pagani M, Lucini D, Hypertension 2008 51 1289 1294 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.109389 18378858
36. The prevalence of retinal vascular abnormalities in children and adolescents with essential hypertension. Daniels SR, Lipman MJ, Burke MJ, Loggie JM, Am J Ophthalmol 1991 111 205 208 1992741
37. Blood pressure and retinal arteriolar narrowing in children. Mitchell P, Cheung N, de Haseth K, Taylor B, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ, Hypertension 2007 49 1156 1162 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.106.085910 17372033
38. «What goes up must immediately come down!» which indication for short-acting nifedipine in children with arterial hypertension? Calvetta A, Martino S, von Vigier RO, Schmidtko J, Fossali E, Bianchetti MG, Pediatr Nephrol 2003 18 1 2 10.1007/s00467-002-1010-3 12520323
39. Advances in the pathogenesis and management of hypertensive crisis. Patel HP, Mitsnefes M, Curr Opin Pediatr 2005 17 210 214 10.1097/01.mop.0000150769. 38484.b3 15800414
40. Hypertensive emergencies in children: identification and management of dangerously high blood pressure. Constantine E, Merritt C, Minerva Pediatr 2009 61 2 175 184 19322122
41. The assessment and management of hypertensive emergencies and urgencies in children. Constantine E, Linakis J, Pediatr Emerg Care 2005 21 391 396 10.1097/01.pec.0000166733.08965.23 15942520
42. Has blood pressure increased in children in response to the obesity epidemic? Chiolero A, Bovet P, Paradis G, Paccaud F, Pediatrics 2007 119 544 553 10.1542/peds.2006-2136 17332208
43. Early growth and coronary heart disease in later life: longitudinal study. Eriksson JG, Forsén T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C, Barker DJ, BMJ 2001 322 949 953 10.1136/bmj.322.7292.949 11312225
44. Perinatal risk factors for ischemic heart disease: disentangling the roles of birth weight and preterm birth. Kaijser M, Bonamy AK, Akre O, Cnattingius S, Granath F, Norman M, Ekbom A, Circulation 2008 22 405 410
45. Unravelling the fetal origins hypothesis: is there really an inverse association between birthweight and subsequent blood pressure? Huxley R, Neil A, Collins R, Lancet 2002 360 659 665 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09834-3 12241871
46. Fetal programming of coronary heart disease. Barker DJ, Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002 13 364 368 10.1016/S1043-2760(02)00689-6 12367816
47. Intrauterine growth restriction delays cardiomyocyte maturation and alters coronary artery function in the fetal sheep. Bubb KJ, Cock ML, Black MJ, Dodic M, Boon WM, Parkington HC, Harding R, Tare M, J Physiol 2007 578 871 881 10.1113/jphysiol.2006.121160 17124269
48. Cardiac changes in the intrauterine growth-restricted fetus. Bahtiyar MO, Copel JA, Semin Perinatol 2008 32 190 193 10.1053/j.semperi.2008.02.010 18482620
49. Fetal hemodynamic adaptive changes related to intrauterine growth: the generation R. Vedrburg BO, Jaddoe VW, Wladimiroff JW, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Steegers EA, Study Circulation 2008 117 649 659 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107. 709717
50. Early adiposity rebound: causes and consequences for obesity in children and adults. Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Maillot M, Bellisle F, Int J Obes 2006 30 Suppl 4 11 S17
51. Overweight, physical activity and high blood pressure in children: a review of the literature. Torrance B, McGuire KA, Lewanczuk R, McGavock J, Vasc Health Risk Manag 2007 3 139 149 17583184
52. Usefulness of waist circumference for the identification of childhood hypertension. Genovesi S, Antolini L, Giussani M, Pieruzzi F, Galbiati S, Valsecchi MG, Brambilla P, Stella A, J Hypertens 2008 26 1563 1570 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328302842b 18622233
53. Physical activity as the main therapeutic tool for metabolic syndrome in childhood. Brambilla P, Pozzobon G, Pietrobelli A, Int J Ob 2011 35 1 16 28 10.1038/ijo.2010.255
54. American college of sports medicine position stand. Exercise and hypertension. Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB, Kelley GA, Ray CA, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004 36 533 553 10.1249/01.MSS.0000115224.88514.3A 15076798
55. Salt reduction for preventing hypertension and cardiovascular disease: a population approach should include children. Cutler JA, Roccella EJ, Hypertension 2006 48 818 819 10.1161/01.HYP.0000245673.93844.6d 17015775
56. Reduction of blood pressure with calcium and potassium supplementation in children with salt sensitivity: a 2-year double blinded placebo-controller trial. Mu JJ, Liu ZQ, Liang YM, Yang DY, Zhu DJ, Wang ZX, J Hum Hyperten 2005 19 479 483 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001854
57. Increased blood pressure in neonates and infants whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Beratis NG, Panagoulias D, Varvarigou A, J Pediatr 1996 128 806 812 10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70333-5 8648540
58. Long-term reprogramming of cardiovascular function in infants of active smokers. Cohen G, Jeffery H, Lagercrantz H, Katz-Salamon M, Hypertension 2010 55 722 728 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.142695 20100999
59. Passive smoking and patterns of 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in healthy children. Pijanowska M, Zajaczkowska M, Pol Merkur Lekarski 2004 16 320 322 15517924
60. Lifestyle and cardiovascular risk factors in 2001 child-parent pairs: the PEP family heart study. Schwandt P, Haas GM, Liepold E, Atherosclerosis 2010 213 642 648 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.09.032 20980001
61. Hypertension, prehypertension, and transient elevated blood pressure in children: association with weight excess and waist circumference. Genovesi S, Antolini L, Giussani M, Brambilla P, Barbieri V, Galbiati S, Mastriani S, Sala V, Valsecchi MG, Stella A, Am J Hypertens 2010 23 756 761 10.1038/ajh.2010.50 20300068
62. Left ventricular mass index in children with white coat hypertension. Lande MB, Meagher CC, Fisher SG, Belani P, Wang H, Rashid M, J Pediatr 2008 153 50 54 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.01.025 18571535
63. Menghetti E, La pressione arteriosa nel primo anno di vita: normalità e patologia Parma: Cristoforetti Ed 1981
64. Neonatal hypertension: diagnosis and management. Flynn JT, Pediatr Nephrol 2000 14 332 341 10.1007/s004670050771 10775081
65. Ipertensione arteriosa nei bambini, negli adolescenti e nei giovani. Pollini I, Ital Heart J 2000 1 Suppl 5 83 86 10905134
66. Hypertension artérielle du nouveau né Loirat C, Arch Fr Pediatr 1988 45 287 294 3044294
67. Menghetti E, Manuale di Neonatologia: Società Ed Universo Roma First 2008 141
68. Etiology of sustained hypertension in children in the southwestern united states. Arar MY, Hogg RJ, Arant BS Jr, Seikaly MG, Pediatr Nephrol 1994 8 186 189 10.1007/BF00865475 8018497
69. Hypertension in childhood and adolescence. Lieberman E, Clinical hypertension Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, Kaplan N, 5 1990 407 433
70. Secondary forms of hypertension in children. Dillon MJ, Pediatric hypertension Totowa: Humana Press, Portman RJ, Sorof JM, Ingelfinger JR, 2004 159 179
71. Secondary hypertension in children and adolescents. Lurbe E, Redon J, Secondary hypertension Totowa: Humana Press, Mansoor GA, 2004 279 306
72. Progetto child. Recommendations on hypertension in childhood, the CHild project. Ardissino G, Bianchetti M, Braga M, Calzolari A, Dacco V, Fossali E, Ghiglia S, Orsi A, Pollini I, Sforzini C, Salice P, Ital Heart J Suppl 2004 5 398 412 15182068
73. American heart association guidelines for primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Kavey RW, Daniels SR, Lauer RM, Atkins DL, Hayman LL, Taubert K, Circulation 2003 107 1562 1566 10.1161/01.CIR.0000061521.15730.6E 12654618
74. Cardiovascular health in childhood. A statement for health professionals from the committee in atherosclerosis, hypertension, and obesity in the young (AHOY) of the council on cardiovascular disease in the young, American hearth association. Williams CL, Hayman LL, Daniels SR, Robinson TN, Steinberger J, Paridon S, Bazzarre T, Circulation 2002 106 143 160 10.1161/01.CIR.0000019555. 61092.9E 12093785
75. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in nursing practice: focus on children and youth. A scientific statement from the American heart association committee on atherosclerosis, hypertension, and obesity in youth of the council on cardiovascular disease in the young, council on cardiovascular nursing, council on epidemiology and prevention, council on nutrition, physical activity and metabolism. Hayman LL, Meininger JC, Daniels SR, Mc Crindle BW, Helden L, Dennison BA, Steinberger J, Williams CL, Circulation 2007 116 344 357 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.184595 17592077
76. The relationship between weight gain and blood pressure in children and adolescents. McGavock JM, Torrance B, McGuire KA, Wozny P, Lewanczuk RZ, Am J Hypertens 2007 20 1038 1044 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2007.04.018 17903685
77. Results of blood pressure screening in a population of school-aged children in the province of Milan: role of overweight. Genovesi S, Giussani M, Pieruzzi F, Vigorita F, Arcovio C, Cavuto S, Stella A, J Hypertens 2005 23 493 497 10.1097/01.hjh.0000160203.35910.9f 15716688
78. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH, BMJ 2000 320 1240 1243 10.1136/bmj.320.7244.1240 10797032
79. Società Italiana di Nutrizione Umana, http://www.sinu.it/larn/tab- rias.asp
80. Dietary recommendation for children and adolescents. Gidding SS, Dennison BA, Birch LL, Daniels SR, Gilman MW, Lichtenstein AH, Rattay KT, Steinberger J, Stettler N, Van Horn L, Circulation 2005 112 2061 2075 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 105.169251 16186441
81. Assessment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Krebs NF, Himes JH, Jacobson D, Nicklas TA, Guilday P, Styne D, Pediatrics 2007 120 193 S228 10.1542/peds.2007-2329D 18055652
82. Importance of salt in determining blood pressure in children: meta-analysis of controlled trials. He FJ, Mac Gregor GA, Hypertension 2006 48 861 869 10.1161/01.HYP.0000245672.27270.4a 17000923
83. Società Italiana di Nutrizione Umana, http://www.sinu.it/larn/ mineral1.asp#SODIO
84. Prevention of childhood obesity through increased physical activity. Council on Sport Medicine and Fitness and Council on School Health Active Healthy Living, Pediatrics 2006 117 1834 1842 16651347
85. Strategies which aim to positively impact on weight, physical activity, diet and sedentary behaviours in children from zero to five years. A systematic review of the literature. Campbell KJ, Hesketh KD, Obes Rev 2007 8 327 338 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00305.x 17578382
86. Società Italiana di Pediatria, Indagine Adolescenti, 2008 http://www.sip.it/index/index/atom/1455
87. Household television access: associations with screen time, reading and homework among youth. Wiecha JL, Sobol AM, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL, Ambul Pediatr 2001 1 244 251 10.1367/1539-4409(2001)001<0244:HTAAWS>2.0.CO;2 11888409
88. Associations between sedentary behavior and blood pressure in young children. Martinez-Gomez D, Tucker J, Heelan KA, Welk GL, Eisenmann JC, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2009 163 724 730 10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.90 19652104
89. Increased television viewing is associated with elevated body fatness but not with lower total energy expenditure in children. Jackson DM, Djafarian K, Stewart J, Speakman JR, Am J Nutr 2009 89 1031 1036 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26746
90. Enalapril pediatric hypertension collaborative study group. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study of the effectiveness and safety of enalapril for children with hypertension. Wells T, Frame V, Soffer B, Shaw W, Zhang Z, Herrera P, Shahinfar S, J Clin Pharmacol 2002 42 870 880 10.1177/009127002401102786 12162469
91. Is the extrapolated adult dose of Fosinopril safe and effective in treating hypertensive children? Li JS, Berezny K, Kilaru R, Hazan L, Portman R, Hogg R, Jenkins RD, Kamani P, Cottril CM, Mattoo TK, Zharkova L, Kozlova L, Weisman I, Deichman D, Califf RM, Hypertension 2004 44 289 293 10.1161/01.HYP.0000138069.68413.f0 15262902
92. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study of the effectiveness and safety of Lisinopril for children with hypertension. Soffer B, Zhang Z, Miller K, Vogt BA, Shahinfar S, Am J Hypertens 2003 16 795 800 10.1016/S0895-7061(03)00900-2 14553956
93. Effects of antihypertensive drugs on blood pressure and proteinuria in childhood. Simonetti G, Rizzi M, Donadini R, Bianchetti MG, J Hypertens 2007 25 2370 2376 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282efeb7e 17984655
94. Candesartan cilexetil in children with hypertension or proteinuria: preliminary data. Simonetti GD, von Vigier RO, Konrad M, Rizzi M, Fossali E, Bianchetti MG, Pediatr Nephrol 2006 21 1480 1482 16802178
95. Pediatric valsartan study group. Efficacy and safety of the angiotensin receptor blocker valsartan in children with hypertension aged 1 to 5 years. Flynn JT, Meyers KE, Neto JP, De Paula Meneses R, Zurowska A, Bagga A, Mattheyse L, Shi V, Gupte J, Solar-Yohay S, Han G, Hypertension 2008 52 222 228 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.111054 18591457
96. The pharmacodynamic effectiveness of metoprolol in adolescent hypertension. Falkner B, Lowenthal DT, Affrime MB, Pediatr Pharmacol (New York) 1982 2 49 55
97. Calcium channel blockers: pharmacology and place in therapy of pediatric hypertension. Flynn JT, Pasko DA, Pediatr Nephrol 2000 15 302 316 10.1007/s004670000480 11149130
98. Propranolol versus chlorthalidone: a prospective therapeutic trial in children with chronic hypertension. Bachmann H, Helv Paediatr Acta 1984 39 55 61 6373679
99. Antihypertensive and antiproteinuric efficacy of ramipril in children with chronic renal failure. Wühl E, Mehls O, Schaefer F, ESCAPE Trial Group, Kidney Int 2004 66 768 776 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00802.x 15253732
100. Better renoprotective effect of angiotensin II antagonist compared to dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker in childhood. Gartenmann AC, Fossali E, von Vigier RO, Simonetti GD, Schmidtko J, Edefonti A, Bianchetti MG, Kidney Int 2003 64 1450 1454 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00238.x 12969165