Production of nanocrystalline cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass: Technology and applications

Carbohydrate Polymers

Volumn 94, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 154-169

  Brinchi, L ^a   Cotana, F ^a   Fortunati, E ^a   Kenny, J M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PERUGIA   (Italy)

^b INSTITUTO DE CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGÍA DE POLÍMEROS   (Spain)

Author keywords

Cellulose; Lignocellulosic biomass; Nanocellulose; Nanocomposites; Nanotechnology

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN; EXTRACTION PROCEDURE; LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS; NANO-CELLULOSE; NANOCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE; PETROLEUM SUPPLY; POLYMER MATRIX NANOCOMPOSITES; TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT;

CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES; INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS; MECHANICAL PROPERTIES; NANOCOMPOSITES; NANOTECHNOLOGY;

BIOMASS;

CELLULOSE; LIGNIN; LIGNOCELLULOSE; NANOPARTICLE; PLANT EXTRACT;

ANIMAL; BIOMASS; CHEMISTRY; HUMAN; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; METHODOLOGY; REVIEW; SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION;

ANIMALS; BIOMASS; CELLULOSE; HUMANS; LIGNIN; NANOPARTICLES; PLANT EXTRACTS; SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION;

BIOMASS; CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES; LIGNOCELLULOSE; MECHANICAL PROPERTIES;

EID: 84874137434     PISSN: 01448617     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.033     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. A.P. Abbott, G. Capper, D.L. Davies, R.K. Rasheed, and V. Tambyrajah Novel solvent properties of choline chloride/urea mixtures Chemistry Communications 2003 70 71
2. A.P. Abbott, R.C. Harris, K.S. Ryder, C. D'Agostino, L.F. Gladden, and M.D. Mantle Glycerol eutectics as sustainable solvent systems Green Chemistry 13 2011 82 90
3. H.P.S. Abdul Khalil, A.H. Bhat, and A.F.I. Yusra Green composites from sustainable cellulose nanofibrils: A review Carbohydrate Polymers 87 2012 963 979
4. E. Abraham, B. Deepa, L.A. Pothan, S. Thomas, U. Cvelbard, and R. Anandjiwala Extraction of nanocellulose fibrils from lignocellulosic fibres: A novel approach Carbohydrate Polymers 86 2011 1468 1475
5. L.H. Alvarez, and F.J. Cervantes (Bio)nanotechnologies to enhance environmental quality and energy production Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 86 2011 1354 1363
6. M.N. Anglès, and A. Dufresne Plasticized starch/tunicin whiskers nanocomposite materials. 1. Structural analysis Macromolecules 33 2000 8344 8353
7. M.N. Anglès, and A. Dufresne Plasticized starch/tunicin whiskers nanocomposite materials. 2. Mechanical behavior Macromolecules 34 2001 2921 2931
8. J. Araki, M. Wada, and S. Kuga Steric stabilization of a cellulose microcrystal suspension by poly(ethylene glycol) grafting Langmuir 17 2001 21 27
9. J. Araki, M. Wada, S. Kuga, and T. Okano Flow properties of microcrystalline cellulose suspension prepared by acid treatment of native cellulose Colloids and Surfactants A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 142 1998 75 82
10. 2: Selectivity control by water or by aqueous micellar solutions European Journal of Organic Chemistry 9 2000 1793 1797
11. M.F. Ashby Overview No. 80: On the engineering properties of materials Acta Metallurgica 37 1989 1273 1293
12. M.L. Auad, T. Richardson, M. Hicks, M.A. Mosiewicki, M.I. Aranguren, and N.E. Marcovich Shape memory segmented polyurethanes: Dependence of behavior on nanocellulose addition and testing conditions Polymer Interfaces 61 2012 321 327
13. H.M.C. Azeredo, L.H.C. Mattoso, R.J. Avena-Bustillos, G. Ceotto Filho, M.L. Munford, and D. Wood Nanocellulose reinforced chitosan composite films as affected by nanofiller loading and plasticizer content Journal of Food Science 75 2010 1 7
14. W. Bai, J. Holbery, and K. Li A technique for production of nanocrystalline cellulose with a narrow size distribution Cellulose 16 2009 455 465
15. Beck, S., Bouchard, J., & Berry, R. (2010). Control of nanocrystalline cellulose film iridescence wavelength. PCT Int Appl Patent WO 2010124396.
16. S. Beck-Candanedo, M. Roman, and D.G. Gray Effect of reaction conditions on the properties and behaviour of wood cellulose nanocrystal suspensions Biomacromolecules 6 2005 1048 1054
17. J. Biagiotti, D. Puglia, and J.M. Kenny A review on natural fibre-based composites - Part II. Application of natural reinforcements in composite materials for automotive industry Journal of Natural Fibers 1 3 2004 23 65
18. J. Biagiotti, D. Puglia, and J.M. Kenny A review on natural fibre based composites - Part I. Structure, processing and properties of vegetable fibres Journal of Natural Fibers 1 2 2004 37 68
19. D. Biondini, L. Brinchi, R. Germani, L. Goracci, and G. Savelli Esterification of unprotected α-Amino acids in ionic liquids as reaction media Letters of Organic Chemistry 7 2010 39 44
20. D. Biondini, L. Brinchi, R. Germani, and G. Savelli An effective chemoselective esterification of hydroxybenzoic acids in ionic liquid promoted by KF Letters of Organic Chemistry 3 2006 207 211
21. D. Bondeson, I. Kvien, and K. Oksman Optimization of the isolation of nanocrystals from microcrystalline cellulose by acid hydrolysis Cellulose 13 2006 171 180
22. D. Bondeson, and K. Oksman Polylactic acid/cellulose whiskers nanocomposites modified by polyvinyl alcohol Composites: Part A 38 2007 2486 2492
23. C. Bonini, L. Heux, J.Y. Cavaille, P. Linder, C. Dewhurst, and P. Terech Rodlike cellulose whiskers coated with surfactant: A small-Angle neutron scattering characterization Langmuir 18 2002 3311 3314
24. J. Bras, D. Viet, C. Bruzzese, and A. Dufresne Correlation between stiffness of sheets prepared from cellulose whiskers and nanoparticles dimensions Carbohydrate Polymers 84 2011 211 215
25. B. Braun, J.R. Dorgan, and J.P. Chandler Cellulosic nanowhiskers. Theory and application of light scattering from polydisperse spheroid in the Rayleigh-Gans-Debye regime Biomacromolecules 9 2008 1255 1263
26. L. Brinchi, L. Chiavini, L. Goracci, P. Di Profio, and R. Germani Efficient hydrolysis of nitriles to amides with hydroperoxide anion in aquoues surfactant solutions as reaction medium Letters of Organic Chemistry 6 2009 175 179
27. N2-E2 reactions induced by aqueous association colloids Colloids Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 132 1998 303 314
28. D.M. Bruce, R.N. Hobson, J.W. Farrent, and D.G. Hepworth High performance composites from low-cast plant primary cell walls Composite Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 36 2005 1486 1493
29. X. Cao, Y. Chen, P.R. Chang, A.D. Muir, and G. Falk Starch-based nanocomposites reinforced with flax cellulose nanocrystals eXPRESS Polymer Letters 2 2008 502 510
30. X. Cao, Y. Chen, P.R. Chang, M. Stumborg, and M.A. Huneault Green composites reinforced with hemp nanocrystals in plasticized starch Journal of Applied Polymer Science 109 2008 3804 3810
31. J.R. Capadona, K. Shanmuganathan, S. Trittschuh, S. Seidel, S.J. Rowan, and C. Weder Polymer nanocomposites with nanowiskers isolated from microcrystalline cellulose Biomacromolecules 10 2009 712 716
32. J.R. Capadona, K. Shanmuganathan, D.J. Tyler, S.J. Rowan, and C. Weder Stimuli-responsive polymer nanocomposites inspired by the sea cucumber dermis Science 319 2008 1370 1374
33. G. Chauve, L. Heux, R. Arouini, and K. Mazeau Cellulose poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) nanocomposites studied by molecular modelling and mechanical spectroscopy Biomacromolecules 6 2005 2025 2031
34. L. Chazeau, J.Y. Cavaille, G. Canova, R. Dendievel, and B. Boutherin Viscoelastic properties of plasticed PVC reinforced with cellulose whiskers Journal of Applied Polymer Science 71 1999 1797 1808
35. L. Chazeau, J.Y. Cavaille, and J. Perez Plasticed PVC reinforced with cellulose whiskers II: Plastic behaviour Journal of Polymer in Science: Polymer in Physics 38 2000 383 392
36. L. Chazeau, J.Y. Cavaille, and P. Terech Mechanical behaviour above Tg of a plasticed PVC reinforced with cellulose whiskers, a SANS structural study Polymer 40 1999 5333 5344
37. M. Cheng, W. Chen, and T. Weerasooriya Experimental investigation of the transverse mechanical properties of a single Kevlar-KM2 fiber International Journal of Solids and Structures 41 2004 6215 6232
38. B.M. Cherian, A.L. Leao, S.F. de Souza, S. Thomas, L.A. Pothan, and M. Kottaisamy Isolation of nanocellulose from pineapple leaf fibres by steam explosion Carbohydrate Polymers 81 2010 720 725
39. X. Colom, F. Carrasco, P. Pages, and J. Canavate Effects of different treatments on the interface of HDPE/lignocellulosic fiber composites Composite Science and Technology 63 2003 161 169
40. F. Cotana, and D. Giraldi Bio-methane form biogas purified and stored by hydrate technology Journal of Biotechnology 150 2010 S174
41. E.D. Cranston, and D.G. Gray Formation of cellulose-based electrostatic layer-by-layer films in a magnetic field Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 7 2006 319 321
42. G. Davis, and J.H. Song Biodegradable packaging based on raw materials from crops and their impact on waste management Industrial Crops and Products 23 2006 147 161
43. J.P. de Mesquita, C.L. Donnici, and F.V. Pereira Biobased nanocomposites from layer-by-layer assembly of cellulose nanowhiskers with chitosan Biomacromolecules 11 2010 473 480
44. V. De Santi, F. Cardellini, L. Brinchi, and R. Germani Novel Brønsted acidic deep eutectic solvents as reaction media for esterification of carboxylic acid with alcohols Tetrahedron Letters 53 2012 5151 5155
45. M.M. de Souza Lima, and R. Borsali Static and dynamic light scattering from polyelectrolyte microcrystal cellulose Langmuir 18 2002 992 996
46. M.M. de Souza Lima, J.T. Wong, M. Paillett, R. Borsali, and R. Pecora Translational and rotational dynamics of rodlike cellulose whiskers Langmuir 19 2003 24 29
47. A.Y. Denisov, E. Kloser, D.G. Gray, and A.K. Mittermaier Protein alignment using cellulose nanocrystals: Practical considerations and range of application Journal of Biomolecular NMR 47 2010 195 204
48. H. Dong, K.E. Strawhecker, J.F. Snyder, J.A. Orlicki, R.S. Reiner, and A.W. Rudie Cellulose nanocrystals as a reinforcing material for electrospun poly(methyl methacrylate) fibers: Formation properties and nanomechanical characterization Carbohydrate Polymers 87 2012 2488 2495
49. S.P. Dong, and M. Roman Fluorescently labelled cellulose nanocrystals for bioimaging applications Journal of American Chemical Society 129 2007 13810 13811
50. X.M. Dong, J.F. Revol, and D.G. Gray Effect of microcrystalline preparation conditions on the formation of colloidal crystals of cellulose Cellulose 5 1998 19 32
51. N. Drogat, R. Granet, V. Sol, A. Memmi, N. Saad, and K.C. Klein Antimicrobial silver nanoparticles generated on cellulose nanocrystals Journal of Nanoparticle Research 13 2011 1557 1562
52. D. Dubief, E. Samain, and A. Dufresne Polysaccharide microcrystals reinforced amorphous poly(β-hydroxyoctanoate) nanocomposite materials Macromolecules 32 1999 5765 5771
53. A. Dufresne Polysaccharide nanocrystal reinforced nanocomposites The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 86 2008 484 494
54. A. Dufresne Processing of polymer nanocomposites reinforced with polysaccharide nanocrystals Molecules 15 2010 4111 4128
55. A. Dufresne, J.Y. Cavaille, and W. Helbert Thermoplastic nanocomposites filled with wheat straw cellulose whiskers. Part II. Effect of processing and modelling Polymer Composites 18 1997 198 210
56. A. Dufresne, N. Dupeyre, and M.R. Vignon Cellulose microfibrils from potato tuber cells: Processing and characterization of starch-cellulose microfibril composites Journal of Applied Polymers Science 76 2000 2080 2092
57. A. Dufresne, M.B. Kellerhals, and B. Witholt Transcrystallization in Mcl-PHAs/cellulose whiskers composites Macromolecules 32 1999 7396 7401
58. N. Duran, A.P. Lemes, M. Duran, J. Freer, and J. Baeza A minireview of cellulose nanocrystals and its potential integration as co-product in bioethanol production Journal of Chilean Chemical Society 56 2011 672 677
59. N. Duran, A.P. Lemes, and A.B. Seabra Review of cellulose nanocrystals patents: Preparation, composites and general applications Recent Patents on Nanotechnology 6 2012 16 28
60. S.J. Eichhorn Cellulose nanowhiskers: Promising materials for advanced applications Soft Matter 7 2011 303 315
61. S.J. Eichhorn, A. Dufresne, M. Aranguren, N.E. Marcovich, J.R. Capadona, and S.J. Rowan Review: Current international research into cellulose nanofibres Journal of Materials Science 45 2010 1 33
62. S. Elazzouzi-Hafraoui, Y. Nishiyama, J. Putaux, L. Heux, F. Dubrueil, and C. Rochas The shape and size distribution of crystalline nanoparticles prepared by acid hydrolysis of native cellulose Biomacromolecules 9 2008 57 65
63. V. Favier, G.R. Canova, J.Y. Cavaille, H. Chanzy, A. Dufresne, and C. Gauthier Nanocomposites materials from latex and cellulose whiskers Polymer Advanced and Technology 6 1995 351 355
64. V. Favier, H. Chanzy, and J.Y. Cavaille Polymer nanocomposites reinforced by cellulose whiskers Macromolecules 28 1995 6365 6367
65. D. Fengel, and G. Wegener Wood 1989 Walter de Gruyter Berlin
66. I. Filpponen, H. Sadeghifar, and D.S. Argyropoulos Photoresponsive cellulose nanocrystals Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology 1 2011 34 43
67. P.B. Filson, and B.E. Dawson-Andoh Sono-chemical preparation of cellulose nanocrystals from lignocellulose derived materials Bioresource Technology 100 2009 2259 2264
68. K. Fleming, D.G. Gray, S. Prasannan, and S. Matthews Cellulose crystallites: A new and robust liquid crystalline medium for the measurement of residual dipolar couplings Journal of the American Chemical Society 122 2000 5224 5225
69. E. Fortunati, I. Armentano, Q. Zhou, A. Iannoni, E. Saino, and L. Visai Multifunctional bionanocomposite films of poly(lactic acid) cellulose nanocrystals and silver nanoparticles Carbohydrate Polymers 87 2012 1596 1605
70. E. Fortunati, I. Armentano, Q. Zhou, D. Puglia, A. Terenzi, and L.A. Berglund Microstructure and nonisothermal cold crystallization of PLA composites based on silver nanoparticles and nanocrystalline cellulose Polymer Degradation and Stability 97 2012 2027 2036
71. E. Fortunati, M. Peltzer, I. Armentano, L. Torre, A. Jimenéz, and J.M. Kenny Effects of modified cellulose nanocrystals on the barrier and migration properties of PLA nano-biocomposites Carbohydrate Polymers 90 2012 948 956
72. E. Fortunati, D. Puglia, M. Monti, C. Santulli, M. Maniruzzaman, and J.M. Kenny Cellulose nanocrystals extracted from okra fibers in PVA nanocomposites Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2012 10.1002/app.38524
73. A.N. Frone, D.M. Panaitescu, and D. Donescu Some aspects concerning the isolation of cellulose micro- and nano-fibers Scientific Bulletin-University "Politehnica" of Bucharest 73 2011 133 152
74. A. Gani, and I. Narus Effect of cellulose and lignin content on pyrolysis and combustion characteristics for several types of biomass Renewable Energy 32 2007 649 661
75. D.J. Gardner, G.S. Oporto, R. Mills, and M.A.S.A. Samir Adhesion and surface issues in cellulose and nanocellulose Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 22 2008 545 567
76. 3 solid solutions International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 34 2009 9042 9049
77. M. Grunnert, and W.T. Winter Nanocomposites of cellulose acetate butyrate reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals Journal of Polymers and Environment 10 2002 27 30
78. Y. Habibi, and A. Dufresne Highly filled bionanocomposites from functionalized polysaccharides nanocrystals Biomacromolecules 9 2008 1974 1980
79. Y. Habibi, A.L. Goffin, N. Schiltz, E. Duquesne, P. Dubois, and A. Dufresne Bionanocomposites based on poly(ε-caprolactones)-grafted cellulose nanocrystals by ring opening polymerization Journal of Materials Chemistry 18 2008 5002 5010
80. Y. Habibi, L.A. Lucia, and O.J. Rojas Cellulose nanocrystals: Chemistry, self-Assembling, and applications Chemical Reviews 110 2010 3479 3500
81. W. Hamad On the development and applications of cellulosic nanofibrillar and nanocrystalline materials The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 84 2006 513 519
82. W.Y. Hamad, and T.Q. Hu Structure-process-yield interrelations in nanocrystalline cellulose extraction The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 88 2010 392 402
83. Hamad, W. Y., & Miao, C. (2011). Nanocomposite biomaterials of nanocrystalline cellulose (ncc) and polylactic acid (pla). U.S. Pat Appl Publ US 20110196094.
84. C.N. Hamelinck, G. van Hooijdonk, and A. Faaij Ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass: Techno-economic performance in short-middle- and long-term Biomass & Bioenergy 28 2005 384 410
85. S.J. Hanley, J. Giansson, J.F. Revol, and D.G. Gray Atomic force microscopy of cellulose microfibrils comparison with transmission electron microscopy Polymer 33 1992 4639 4642
86. D.J. Hayes An examination of biorefining processes catalysts and challenges Catalysis Today 145 2009 138 151
87. W. Helbert, J.Y. Cavaille, and A. Dufresne Thermoplastic nanocomposites filled with wheat straw cellulose whiskers. Part I. Processing and mechanical behaviour Polymer Composites 17 1996 604 611
88. P.H.M. Hoet, I. Bruske-Hohlfeld, and O.V. Salata Possible health impact of nanomaterials C. Kumar, Nanomaterials-toxicity, health and environmental issues 2006 Wiley-VCH Weinheim 53 81
89. B.L. Holt, S.D. Stoyanov, E. Pelan, and V.N. Paunov Novel anisotropic materials from functionalized colloidal cellulose and cellulose derivatives Journal of Materials Chemistry 20 2010 10058 10070
90. D.N.S. Hon, and N. Shiraishi Wood and cellulosic chemistry 2nd ed. 2001 Marcel Dekker New York
91. E. Horvath, T. Lindström, and J. Laine On the indirect polyelectrolyte titration of cellulosic fibers. Conditions for charge stoichiometry and comparison with ESCA Langmuir 22 2006 824 830
92. M.A. Hubbe Does production of the world's highest-tonnage manufactured item often involve nanotechnology? Nanotech Perceptions 2 2006 263 266
93. M.A. Hubbe, O.J. Rojas, L.A. Lucia, and M. Sain Cellulosic nanocomposites: A review Bioresources 3 2008 929 980
94. J.K. Jackson, K. Letchford, B.Z. Wasserman, L. Ye, W.Y. Hamad, and H.M. Burt The use of nanocrystalline cellulose for the binding and controlled release of drugs International Journal of Nanomedicine 6 2011 321 330
95. B. Jean, F. Dubreuil, L. Heux, and F. Cousin Structural details of cellulose nanocrystals/polyelectrolytes multilayers probed by neutron reflectivity and AFM Langmuir 24 2008 3452 3458
96. Jemaa, N., Paleologou, M., & Zhang, X. (2011). Fractionation of a waste liquor stream from nanocrystalline cellulose production. Patent WO 2011017797.
97. Jiang, Z. H., Berry, R., Bouchard, J., & Audet, A. (2011). Adhesion with nanocrystalline cellulose. US patent 2011/0293932.
98. I. Kilpelainen, H. Xie, A. King, M. Granstrom, S. Heikkinen, and D.S. Argyropoulos Dissolution of wood in ionic liquids Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 55 2007 9142 9148
99. F. Kimura, T. Kimura, M. Tamura, A. Hirai, M. Ikuno, and F. Horii Magnetic alignment of the chiral nematic phase of a cellulose microfibril suspension Langmuir 21 2005 2034 2037
100. D. Klemm, B. Heublein, H.P. Fink, and A. Bohn Cellulose: Fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material Angewandte Chemie International Edition 44 2005 3358 3393
101. D. Klemm, F. Kramer, S. Moritz, T. Lindström, M. Ankerfors, and D. Gray Nanocelluloses: A new family of nature-based materials Angewandte Chemie International Edition 50 2011 5438 5466
102. T. Kovacs, V. Naish, B. O'Conner, C. Blaise, F. Gagne, and L. Hall An ecotoxicologial characterization of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) Nanotoxicology 4 2010 255 270
103. K. Kümmerer, J. Menz, J. Schubert, and W. Thielmens Biodegradability of organic nanoparticles in the aqueous environment Chemosphere 82 2011 1387 1392
104. I. Kvien, J. Sugiyama, M. Votrubec, and K. Oksman Characterization of starch nanocomposites Journal of Materials Science 42 2007 8163 8171
105. I. Kvien, B.S. Tanem, and K. Oksman Characterization of cellulose whiskers and their nanocomposites by atomic force and electron microscopy Biomacromolecules 6 2005 3160 3165
106. J.M. Lehn Supramolecular chemistry. Concepts and perspectives 1995 VCH Weinheim
107. A.C.W. Leung, S. Hrapovic, E. Lam, Y. Liu, K.B. Male, and K.A. Mahmoud Characteristics and properties of carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals prepared from a novel one-step procedure Small 7 2011 302 305
108. Q. Li, J. Zhou, and L. Zhang Structure and properties of the nanocomposite films of chitosan reinforced with cellulose whiskers Journal of Polymer Science Part B 47 2009 1069 1077
109. S. Li, Y. Gao, H. Bai, L. Zhang, P. Qu, and L. Bai Preparation and characteristics of polysulfone dialysis composite membranes modified with nanocrystalline cellulose BioResources 6 2011 1670 1680
110. W. Li, J. Yue, and S. Liu Preparation of nanocrystalline cellulose via ultrasound and its reinforcement capability for poly(vinyl alcohol) composites Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 19 2012 479 485
111. Lindström, T., Ankerfors, M., & Henriksson, G. (2007). Method for manufacturing of microfibrillated cellulose. Patent WO-A-2007091942.
112. H. Liu, D. Liu, F. Yao, and Q. Wu Fabrication and properties of transparent polymethylmethacrylate/cellulose nanocrystals composites Bioresource Technology 101 2010 5685 5692
113. N. Ljungberg, C. Bonini, F. Bortolussi, C. Boisson, L. Heux, and J.Y. Cavaille New nanocomposite materials reinforced with cellulose whiskers in atactic polypropylene: Effect of surface and dispersion characteristics Biomacromolecules 6 2005 2732 2739
114. N. Ljungberg, L. Heux, and J.Y. Cavaille Nanocomposites of isotactic polypropylene reinforced with rod-like cellulose whiskers Polymer 47 2006 6285 6292
115. P. Lu, and Y.L. Hsieh Cellulose nanocrystal-filled poly(acrylic acid) nanocomposite fibrous membranes Nanotechnology 20 2009 1 9
116. Y. Lu, L. Weng, and X. Cao Biocomposites of plasticized starch reinforced with cellulose crystallites from cottonseed linter Macromoecules Bioscience 5 2005 1101 1107
117. A.L. Lucia, and O.J. Rojas Fiber nanotechnology: A new platform for green research and technological innovations Cellulose 14 2007 539 542
118. A.L. Lucia, and O.J. Rojas The nanoscience and technology of renewable biomaterials 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Singapore
119. H. Ma, B. Zhou, H.S. Li, Y.Q. Li, and S.Y. Ou Green composite films composed of nanocrystalline cellulose and a cellulose matrix regenerated from functionalized ionic liquid solution Carbohydrate Polymers 84 2011 383 389
120. MacLachlan, M. J., Shopsowitz, K. E., Hamad, W. Y., & Qi, H. (2011). Inorganic mesoporous materials with chiral nematic structures and preparation method thereof. Patent WO 2011123929.
121. W.L.E. Magalhaes, X. Cao, M.A. Ramires, and L.A. Lucia Novel all-cellulose composite displaying aligned cellulose nanofibers reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals Tappi Journal 10 2011 19 25
122. K.A. Mahmoud, K.B. Male, S. Hrapovic, and J.H.T. Luang Cellulose nanocrystals/gold nanoparticle composite as a matrix for enzyme immobilization ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 1 2009 1383 1386
123. K.A. Mahmoud, J.A. Mena, K.B. Male, S. Hrapovic, A. Kamen, and J.H.T. Luong Effect of surface charge on the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of fluorescent labelled cellulose nanocrystals ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2 2010 2924 2932
124. Z. Man, N. Muhammad, A. Sarwono, M.A. Bustam, M.V. Kumar, and S. Rafiq Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals using an ionic liquid Journal of Polymer and the Environment 19 2011 726 731
125. A. Mandal, and D. Chakrabarty Isolation of nanocellulose from waste sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and its characterizatio Carbohydrate Polymers 86 2011 1291 1299
126. R.H. Marchessault, F.F. Morehead, and N.M. Walter Liquid crystals systems from fibrillar polysaccharides Nature 184 1959 632 633
127. N.E. Marcovich, M.L. Auad, N.E. Bellesi, S.R. Nutt, and M.I. Aranguren Cellulose micro/nanocrystals reinforced polyurethane Journal of Materials Research 21 2006 870 881
128. J. Maya Jacob, and T. Sabu Biofibres and biocomposites Carbohydrate Polymers 71 2008 343 364
129. A.K. Mohanty, M. Misra, and L.T. Drzal Sustainable bio-composites from renewable resourses: Opportunities and challenges in green material world Journal of Polymers and the Environment 10 1/2 2002 19 26
130. R.J. Moon, A. Martini, J. Nairn, J. Simonsen, and J. Younblood Cellulose nanomaterials review: Structure properties and nanocomposites Chemical Society Reviews 40 2011 3941 3994
131. S.N. Naik, V.V. Goud, P.K. Rout, and A.K. Dalai Product of first and second generation biofuels: A comprehensive review Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 2010 578 597
132. K. Oksman, J.A. Etang, A.P. Mathew, and M. Jonoobi Cellulose nanowhiskers separated from a bio-residue from wood bioethanol production Biomass & Bioenergy 35 2011 146 152
133. K. Oksman, A.P. Mathew, D. Bondeson, and Kvien Manufacturing process of cellulose whiskers/polylactic acid nanocomposites Composite Science and Technology 66 2006 2776 2784
134. K. Oksman, and M. Sain Cellulose nanocomposites: Processing, characterization and properties 2006 American Chemical Society Washington, DC
135. M. Pääkkö, M. Ankerfors, H. Kosonen, A. Nykänen, S. Ahola, and M. Österberg Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization for nanoscale cellulose fibrils and strong gels Biomacromolecules 8 2007 1934 1941
136. S. Padalkar, J.R. Capadona, S.J. Rowan, C. Weder, R.J. Moon, and L.A. Stanciu Self-Assembly and alignment of semiconductor nanoparticles on cellulose nanocrystals Journal of Materials Science 46 2011 5672 5679
137. S.L. Padalkar, J.R. Capadona, S.J. Rowan, C. Weder, Y.H. Won, and L.A. Stanciu Natural biopolymers: Novel templates for the synthesis of nanostructures Langmuir 26 2010 8497 8502
138. J.K. Pandey, W.S. Chu, C.S. Kim, C.S. Lee, and S.H. Ahn Bionanocomposites of grass Advanced Materials Research 47-50 2008 435 438
139. J.K. Pandey, W.S. Chu, C.S. Kim, C.S. Lee, D.J. Jang, and S.H. Ahn Evaluation of morphological architecture of cellulose chains in grass during conversion from macro to nano dimensions e-Polymer 102 2009 1 15
140. J.K. Pandey, C.S. Kim, W.S. Chu, Y. Choi, S.H. Ahn, and C.S. Lee Preparation and structural evaluation of nano reinforced composites from cellulose whiskers of grass and biodegradable polymer matrix Journal of Composite Materials 46 2012 653 663
141. S.A. Paralikar, J. Simonsen, and J. Lombard Poly(vinyl alcohol)/cellulose nanocrystals barrier membranes Journal of Membranes Science 320 2008 248 258
142. A. Pei, J.M. Malho, J. Ruokolainen, Q. Zhou, and L.A. Berglund Strong nanocomposite reinforcement effects in polyurethane elastomer with low volume fraction of cellulose nanocrystals Macromolecules 44 2011 4422 4427
143. A. Pei, Q. Zhou, and L.A. Berglund Functionalized cellulose nanocrystals as biobased nucleation agents in poly(l-lactide) (PLLA): Crystallization and mechanical property effects Composite Science and Technology 70 2010 815 821
144. B.L. Peng, N. Dhar, H.L. Liu, and K.C. Tam Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives: A nanotechnology perspective The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 89 2011 1191 1260
145. Y. Peng, D.J. Gardner, and Y. Han Drying cellulose nanofibrils: In search of a suitable method Cellulose 19 2012 91 102
146. M.S. Peresin, Y. Habibi, A.H. Vesterinen, O.J. Rojas, J.J. Pawlak, and J.V. Seppala Effect of moisture on electrospun nanofiber composites of poly(vinyl alcohol) and cellulose nanocrystals Biomacromolecules 11 2010 2471 2477
147. M.S. Peresin, Y. Habibi, J.O. Zoppe, J.J. Pawlak, and O.J. Rojas Nanofiber composites of polyvinyl alcohol and cellulose nanocrystals: Manufacture and characterization Biomacromolecules 11 2010 674 681
148. L. Petersson, A.P. Mathew, and K. Oksman Dispersion and properties of cellulose nanowhiskers and layered silicates in cellulose acetate butyrate nanocomposites Journal of Applied Polymer Science 112 2009 2001 2009
149. L. Ping, and Y.L. Hsieh Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from rice straw Carbohydrate Polymers 87 2012 564 573
150. L. Ping, and Y.L. Hsieh Cellulose isolation and core-shell nanostructures of cellulose nanocrystals from chardonnay grape skins Carbohydrate Polymers 87 2012 2546 2553
151. P. Podsiadlo, S.Y. Choi, B. Shim, J. Lee, M. Cuddihy, and N.A. Kotov Molecularly engineered nanocomposites: Layer by layer assembly of cellulose nanocrystals Biomacromolecules 6 2005 2914 2918
152. M.T. Postek, A. Vladar, J. Dagata, N. Farkas, B. Ming, and R. Wagner Development of the metrology and imaging of cellulose nanocrystals Measurement Science and Technology 22 2011 1 10
153. L. Pranger, and R. Tannenbaum Biobased nanocomposites prepared by in situ polymerisation of furfuryl alcohol with cellulose whiskers or montmorillonite clay Macromolecules 41 2008 8287 8682
154. H. Qi, J. Cai, L. Zhang, and S. Kuga Properties of films composed of cellulose nanowhiskers and cellulose matrix regenerated from alkali/urea solution Biomacromolecules 10 2009 1597 1602
155. Z.Y. Qin, G.L. Tong, Y.C. Frank Chin, and J.C. Zhou Preparation of ultrasonic-Assisted high carboxylate content cellulose nanocrystals by TEMPO oxidation BioResources 6 2011 1136 1146
156. M. Rai, A. Yadav, and A. Gade Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of microbials Biotechnology Advances 27 2009 76 83
157. E.C. Ramires, and A. Dufresne A review of cellulose nanocrystals and nanocomposites Tappi Journal 10 2011 9 16
158. B.G. Rånby The colloidal properties of cellulose micelles Discussion Faraday Society 11 1951 158 164
159. J.F. Revol On the cross-sectional shape of cellulose crystallites in Valonia Ventricosa Carbohydrate Polymers 2 1982 123 134
160. J.F. Revol, H. Bradford, J. Giasson, R.H. Marchessaults, and D.G. Gray Helicoidal self-ordering of cellulose microfibrils in aqueous suspensions International Journal of Biological Macromololecules 14 1992 170 172
161. Revol, J. F., Godbout, L., & Gray, D. (1997). Solidified liquid crystals of cellulose with optically variable properties. US Patent 5629055.
162. M. Roam Model cellulosic surfaces 2009 American Chemical Society Washington, DC
163. O.J. Rojas, G.A. Montero, and Y. Habibi Electrospun nanocomposites from polystyrene loaded with cellulose nanowhiskers Journal of Applied Polymers Science 113 2009 927 935
164. M. Roman, S.P. Dong, H. Anjali, and Y.W. Lee Cellulose nanocrystals for drug delivery Polysaccharides materials: Performance by design 2010 ACS Washington, DC pp. 81-91
165. M. Roman, and W.T. Winter Effect of sulfate groups from sulfuric acid hydrolysis on the thermal degradation behaviour of bacterial cellulose Biomacromolecules 5 2004 1671 1677
166. M. Roohani, Y. Habibi, N. Belgacem, G. Ebrahim, A.N. Karimi, and A. Dufresne Cellulose whiskers reinforced polyvinyl alcohol copolymers nanocomposites European Polymer Journal 44 2008 2489 2498
167. M.A.S.A. Samir, F. Alloin, and A. Dufresne High performance nanocomposite polymer electrolytes Composite Interfaces 13 2006 545 559
168. M.A.S.A. Samir, F. Alloin, A.M. Mateos, J. Sanchez, and A. Dufresne Plasticed nanocomposite polymer electrolytes based on poly(oxyethylene) and cellulose whiskers Electrochimica Acta 49 2004 4667 4677
169. M.A.S.A. Samir, F. Alloin, J. Sanchez, and A. Dufresne Cross-linked nanocomposites polymer electrolytes reinforced with cellulose whiskers Macromolecules 37 2004 4839 4844
170. A. Saxena, T.J. Elder, J. Kenvin, and A.J. Ragauskas High oxygen nanocomposites barrier films based on xylan and nanocrystalline cellulose Nano-micro Letters 2 2010 235 241
171. A. Saxena, T.J. Elder, J. Kenvin, A.J. Ragauskas, and J. Arthur Moisture barrier properties of xylan composite films Carbohydrate Polymers 84 2011 1371 1377
172. A. Saxena, and A.J. Raguskas Water transmission barrier properties of biodegradable films based on cellulosic whiskers and xylan Carbohydrate Polymers 78 2009 357 360
173. M. Schroers, A. Kokil, and J. Weder Solid polymer electrolytes based on nanocomposites of ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymers and cellulose whiskers Applied Polymer Science 93 2004 2883 2888
174. Y. Shin, I. Bae, B.W. Arey, and G.J. Exarhos Simple preparation and stabilization of nickel nanocrystlas on cellulose nanocrystals Materials Letters 61 2007 3215 3217
175. Y. Shin, I. Bae, B.W. Arey, and G.J. Exarhos Facile stabilization of gold-silver alloy nanoparticles on cellulose nanocrystals Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112 2008 4844 4848
176. Y. Shin, and G.J. Exarhos Template synthesis of porous titania using cellulose nanocrystals Materials Letters 61 2007 2594 2597
177. K.E. Shopsowitz, W.Y. Hamad, and M.J. MacLachlan Flexible and iridescent chiral nematic mesoporous organosilica films Journal of American Chemical Society 134 2012 867 870
178. K.E. Shopsowitz, H. Qi, W.Y. Hamad, and M.J. MacLachlan Free-standing mesoporous silica films with tunable chiral nematic structures Nature 468 2010 422 426
179. G. Siquera, J. Bras, and A. Dufresne Cellulosic bionanocomposites: A review of preparation properties and applications Polymers 2 2010 728 765
180. G. Siqueira, S. Tapin-Lingua, J. Bras, D. da Silva Perez, and A. Dufresne Morphological investigation of nanoparticles obtained from combined mechanical shearing and enzymatic and acid hydrolysis of sisal fibers Cellulose 17 2010 1147 1158
181. G.A. Smook Handbook of pulp & paper technologists 1992 Angus Wilde Publ. Vancouver, BC
182. N. Spreti, L. Brinchi, R. Germani, M.V. Mancini, and G. Savelli Quantitative removal of mercury (II) from water through bulk liquid membranes by lipophilic polyamines European Journal of Organic Chemistry 2006 4379 7384
183. Stanciu, L. A., Padalkar, S., & Moon, R. J. (2011). Surfactant-Assisted inorganic nanoparticle deposition on cellulose nanocrystals. U.S. Patent Appl Publ US 20110262646.
184. A. Sturcova, G.R. Davies, and S.J. Eichhorn Elastic modulus and stress-transfer properties of tunicate cellulose whiskers Biomacromolecules 6 2005 1055 1061
185. P. Terech, L. Chazeau, and J.Y. Cavaille A small-Angle scattering study of cellulose whiskers in aqueous suspensions Macromolecules 32 1999 1872 1875
186. W. Thielemans, C.R. Warbey, and D.A. Walsh Permselective nanostructured membranes based on cellulose nanowwhiskers Green Chemistry 11 2009 531 537
187. P. Uchytil, J. Schauer, R. Petrychkovych, K. Setnickova, and S.Y. Suen Ionic liquid membranes for carbon dioxide-methane separation Journal of Membrane Science 383 2011 262 271
188. P.M. Visakh, and S. Thomas Preparation of bionanomaterials and their polymer nanocomposites from waste and biomass Waste and Biomass Valorization 1 2010 121 134
189. M.I. Voronova, A.G. Zakharov, O.Y. Kuznetsov, and O.V. Surov The effect of drying technique of nanocellulose dispersions on properties of dried materials Materials Letters 68 2012 164 168
190. N. Wang, E. Ding, and R. Cheng Thermal degradation behaviours of spherical cellulose nanocrystals with sulfate groups Polymer 48 2007 3486 3493
191. Y. Wang, Cao, and L. Zhang Effects of cellulose whiskers on properties of soy protein thermoplastics Macromolecules Bioscience 6 2006 524 531
192. T. Welton Room-temperature ionic liquids. Solvents for synthesis and catalysis Chemical Reviews 99 1999 2071 2084
193. D. Wu, L. Wu, L. Wu, B. Xu, Y. Zhang, and M. Zhang Nonisothermal cold crystallization behaviour and kinetics of polylactide/clay nanocomposites Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymers in Physics 45 2007 1100 1113
194. C. Xiang, Y.L. Joo, and M.W. Frey Nanocomposite fibers electrospun from poly(lactic acid)/cellulose nanocrystals Journal of Biobased Materials and Bioenergy 3 2009 147 155
195. C.J. Zhou, R. Chu, R.N. Wu, and Q.L. Wu Electrospun polyethylene oxide/cellulose nanocrystal composite nanofibrous mats with homogeneous and heterogeneous microstructures Biomacromolecules 12 2011 2617 2625
196. 2 nanocubes induced by cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) at low temperature Materials Letters 61 2007 5050 5052
197. J.Y. Zhu, R. Sabo, and X. Luo Integrated production of nano-fibrillated cellulose and cellulosic biofuel (ethanol) by enzymatic fractionation of wood fibers Green Chemistry 13 2011 1339 1344
198. J.O. Zoppe, M.S. Peresin, Y. Habibi, R.A. Venditti, and O.J. Rojas Reinforcing poly(ε-caprolactone) nanofibers with cellulose nanocrystals ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces 1 2009 1996 2004