Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors

Indian Journal of Gastroenterology

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 3-17

  Shrikhande, Shailesh V ^a   Sirohi, Bhawna ^b   Goel, Mahesh ^a   Barreto, Savio G ^a  

^a TATA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (India)

^b ARTEMIS HOSPITAL   (India)

Author keywords

Chemoembolization; Glucagon; Insulin; Somatostatin

Indexed keywords

6 FLUORODOPA F 18; ALPHA INTERFERON; BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CHROMOGRANIN A; CISPLATIN; CIXUTUMUMAB; DACARBAZINE; DIAZOXIDE; DOXORUBICIN; ERLOTINIB; EVEROLIMUS; FLUOROURACIL; GEMCITABINE; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; KI 67 ANTIGEN; NEURON SPECIFIC ENOLASE; OCTREOTIDE; OXALIPLATIN; PASIREOTIDE; PAZOPANIB; PENTETIC ACID; PENTETREOTIDE IN 111; PLACEBO; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; SOMATOSTATIN; STREPTOZOCIN; SUNITINIB; TEMOZOLOMIDE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACTH SECRETING ADENOMA; ANEMIA; ASTHENIA; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CANCER STAGING; CHEMOEMBOLIZATION; CHEMOTHERAPY INDUCED NAUSEA AND VOMITING; CHILL; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; DEPRESSION; DIARRHEA; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG FEVER; ENDOSCOPIC ECHOGRAPHY; FATIGUE; FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION BIOPSY; GASTRINOMA; GLUCAGONOMA; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INFECTION; INSULINOMA; LIVER METASTASIS; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; LYMPHOCYTOPENIA; MULTIDETECTOR COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; MYALGIA; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PANCREAS RESECTION; PANCREATIC NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; PANCREATICODUODENECTOMY; PEPTIC ULCER; PNEUMONIA; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROGRESSION FREE SURVIVAL; PROTEINURIA; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; REVIEW; SOMATOSTATINOMA; STOMATITIS; SURVIVAL RATE; TUMOR CLASSIFICATION; VIPOMA;

EID: 84874111433     PISSN: 02548860     EISSN: 09750711     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12664-012-0257-2     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Yao J, Rindi G, Evans D. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. In: DeVita V Jr, Lawrence T, Rosenberg S, editors. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg's cancer: principles and practice of oncology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011. p. 1489-502.
2. Davies K, Conlon KC. Neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2009; 11: 119-27.
3. Klöppel G, Perren A, Heitz PU. The gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine cell system and its tumors: the WHO classification. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004; 1014: 13-27.
4. Modlin IM, Oberg K, Chung DC, et al. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Lancet Oncol. 2008; 9: 61-72.
5. Halfdanarson TR, Rabe KG, Rubin J, Petersen GM. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs): incidence, prognosis and recent trend toward improved survival. Ann Oncol. 2008; 19: 1727-33.
6. Lam KY, Lo CY. Pancreatic endocrine tumour: a 22-year clinico-pathological experience with morphological, immunohistochemical observation and a review of the literature. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1997; 23: 36-42.
7. Hauso O, Gustafsson BI, Kidd M, et al. Neuroendocrine tumor epidemiology: contrasting Norway and North America. Cancer. 2008; 113: 2655-64.
8. Amarapurkar DN, Juneja MP, Patel ND, Amarapurkar AD, Amarapurkar PD. A retrospective clinico-pathological analysis of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. Trop Gastroenterol. 2010; 31: 101-4.
9. Bhatia P, Srinivasan R, Rajwanshi A, et al. 5-year review and reappraisal of ultrasound-guided percutaneous transabdominal fine needle aspiration of pancreatic lesions. Acta Cytol. 2008; 52: 523-9.
10. Oberg K, Akerström G, Rindi G, Jelic S, ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumours: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2010; 21 Suppl 5: v223-7.
11. Klöppel G. Classification and pathology of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2011; 18 Suppl 1: S1-S16.
12. Klimstra DS, Modlin IR, Coppola D, Lloyd RV, Suster S. The pathologic classification of neuroendocrine tumors: a review of nomenclature, grading, and staging systems. Pancreas. 2010; 39: 707-12.
13. Rindi G, Arnold R, Bosman F, et al. Nomenclature and classification of neuroendocrine neoplasms of the digestive system. In: Bosman F, Carneiro F, Hruban R, Theise N (eds.) WHO Classification of Tumors of the Digestive System. Lyon: IARC Press; 2010. p. 13-4.
14. Sobin L, Gospodarowicz M, Wittekind C. UICC: TNM classification of malignant tumors. 7th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009.
15. Rindi G, Kloppel G, Alhman H, et al. TNM staging of foregut (neuro)endocrine tumors: a consensus proposal including a grading system. Virchows Arch. 2006; 449: 395-401.
16. Ekeblad S, Skogseid B, Dunder K, Oberg K, Eriksson B. Prognostic factors and survival in 324 patients with pancreatic endocrine tumor treated at a single institution. Clin Cancer Res. 2008; 14: 7798-803.
17. Strosberg JR, Cheema A, Weber J, Han G, Coppola D, Kvols LK. Prognostic validity of a novel American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Classification for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2011; 29: 3044-9.
18. Scarpa A, Mantovani W, Capelli P, et al. Pancreatic endocrine tumors: improved TNM staging and histopathological grading permit a clinically efficient prognostic stratification of patients. Mod Pathol. 2010; 23: 824-33.
19. Kloppel G, Rindi G, Perren A, Komminoth P, Klimstra DS. The ENETS and AJCC/UICC TNM classifications of the neuroendocrine tumors of the gastrointestinal tract and the pancreas: a statement. Virchows Arch. 2010; 456: 595-7.
20. Mallinson CN, Bloom SR, Warin AP, Salmon PR, Cox B. A glucagonoma syndrome. Lancet. 1974; 2: 1-5.
21. Remes-Troche JM, Garcia-de-Acevedo B, Zuniga-Varga J, Avila-Funes A, Orozco-Topete R. Necrolytic migratory erythema: a cutaneous clue to glucagonoma syndrome. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2004; 18: 591-5.
22. van Beek AP, de Haas ER, van Vloten WA, Lips CJ, Roijers JF, Canninga-van Dijk MR. The glucagonoma syndrome and necrolytic migratory erythema: a clinical review. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004; 151: 531-7.
23. Nesi G, Marcucci T, Rubio CA, Brandi ML, Tonelli F. Somatostatinoma: clinico-pathological features of three cases and literature reviewed. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008; 23: 521-6.
24. Krejs GJ, Orci L, Conlon JM, et al. Somatostatinoma syndrome. Biochemical, morphologic and clinical features. N Engl J Med. 1979; 301: 285-92.
25. Verner JV, Morrison AB. Islet cell tumor and a syndrome of refractory watery diarrhea and hypokalemia. Am J Med. 1958; 25: 374-80.
26. Lawrence B, Gustafsson BI, Kidd M, Pavel M, Svejda B, Modlin IM. The clinical relevance of chromogranin A as a biomarker for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2011; 40: 111-34. viii.
27. Nobels FR, Kwekkeboom DJ, Coopmans W, et al. Chromogranin A as serum marker for neuroendocrine neoplasia: comparison with neuron-specific enolase and the alpha-subunit of glycoprotein hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997; 82: 2622-8.
28. Lindholm DP, Oberg K. Biomarkers and molecular imaging in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Horm Metab Res. 2011; 43: 832-7.
29. Nehar D, Lombard-Bohas C, Olivieri S, et al. Interest of Chromogranin A for diagnosis and follow-up of endocrine tumors. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004; 60: 644-52.
30. Ahmed A, Turner G, King B, et al. Midgut neuroendocrine tumors with liver metastases: results of the UKINETS study. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2009; 16: 885-94.
31. Massironi S, Conte D, Sciola V, et al. Plasma chromogranin A response to octreotide test: prognostic value for clinical outcome in endocrine digestive tumors. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010; 105: 2072-8.
32. Kouvaraki MA, Ajani JA, Hoff P, et al. Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and streptozocin in the treatment of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. J Clin Oncol. 2004; 22: 4762-71.
33. Yao JC, Lombard-Bohas C, Baudin E, et al. Daily oral everolimus activity in patients with metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors after failure of cytotoxic chemotherapy: a phase II trial. J Clin Oncol. 2010; 28: 69-76.
34. Giusti M, Sidoti M, Augeri C, Rabitti C, Minuto F. Effect of short-term treatment with low dosages of the proton-pump inhibitor omeprazole on serum chromogranin A levels in man. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004; 150: 299-303.
35. Binnick AN, Spencer SK, Dennison WL Jr, Horton ES. Glucagonoma syndrome. Report of two cases and literature review. Arch Dermatol. 1977; 113: 749-54.
36. Shi W, Liao W, Mei X, Xiao Q, Zeng Y, Zhou Q. Necrolytic migratory erythema associated with glucagonoma syndrome. J Clin Oncol. 2010; 28: e329-31.
37. Hayashi D, Tkacz JN, Hammond S, et al. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: multimodality imaging features with pathological correlation. Jpn J Radiol. 2011; 29: 85-91.
38. Sheth S, Hruban RK, Fishman EK. Helical CT of islet cell tumors of the pancreas: typical and atypical manifestations. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002; 179: 725-30.
39. Phan GQ, Yeo CJ, Hruban RH, Lillemoe KD, Pitt HA, Cameron JL. Surgical experience with pancreatic and peripancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: review of 125 patients. J Gastrointest Surg. 1998; 2: 472-82.
40. Gouya H, Vignaux O, Augui J, et al. CT, endoscopic sonography, and a combined protocol for preoperative evaluation of pancreatic insulinomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003; 181: 987-92.
41. Ichikawa T, Peterson MS, Federle MP, et al. Islet cell tumor of the pancreas: biphasic CT versus MR imaging in tumor detection. Radiology. 2000; 216: 163-71.
42. Kraus BB, Ros PR. Insulinoma: diagnosis with fat-suppressed MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1994; 162: 69-70.
43. Owen NJ, Sohaib SA, Peppercorn PD, et al. MRI of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Br J Radiol. 2001; 74: 968-73.
44. Bakir B, Salmaslioglu A, Poyanli A, Rozanes I, Acunas B. Diffusion weighted MR imaging of pancreatic islet cell tumors. Eur J Radiol. 2010; 74: 214-20.
45. Herwick S, Miller FH, Keppke AL. MRI of islet cell tumors of the pancreas. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006; 187: W472-80.
46. Ishikawa T, Itoh A, Kawashima H, et al. Usefulness of EUS combined with contrast-enhancement in the differential diagnosis of malignant versus benign and preoperative localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastrointest Endosc. 2010; 71: 951-9.
47. Pais SA, Al-Haddad M, Mohamadnejad M, et al. EUS for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a single-center, 11-year experience. Gastrointest Endosc. 2010; 71: 1185-93.
48. Figueiredo FA, Giovannini M, Monges G, et al. EUS-FNA predicts 5-year survival in pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastrointest Endosc. 2009; 70: 907-14.
49. Atiq M, Bhutani MS, Bektas M, et al. EUS-FNA for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: A tertiary cancer center experience. Dig Dis Sci. 2012; 57: 791-800.
50. Chatzipantelis P, Salla C, Konstantinou P, Karoumpalis I, Sakellariou S, Doumani I. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration cytology of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a study of 48 cases. Cancer. 2008; 114: 255-62.
51. Malago R, D'Onofrio M, Zamboni GA, et al. Contrast-enhanced sonography of nonfunctioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2009; 192: 424-30.
52. Oberg KE, Reubi JC, Kwekkeboom DJ, Krenning EP. Role of somatostatins in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor development and therapy. Gastroenterology. 2010; 139: 742-53.
53. Versari A, Camellini L, Carlinfante G, et al. Ga-68 DOTATOC PET, endoscopic ultrasonography, and multidetector CT in the diagnosis of duodenopancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a single-centre retrospective study. Clin Nucl Med. 2010; 35: 321-8.
54. Kumar R, Sharma P, Garg P, et al. Role of Ga-DOTATOC PET-CT in the diagnosis and staging of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Eur Radiol. 2011; 21: 2408-16.
55. Yakemchuk VN, Jager PL, Chirakal R, Reid R, Major P, Gulenchyn KY. PET/CT using 18F-FDOPA provides improved staging of carcinoid tumor patients in a Canadian setting. Nucl Med Commun. 2012; 33: 322-30.
56. Bilimoria KY, Talamonti MS, Tomlinson JS, et al. Prognostic score predicting survival after resection of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: analysis of 3851 patients. Ann Surg. 2008; 247: 490-500.
57. Chen H, Hardacre JM, Uzar A, Cameron JL, Choti MA. Isolated liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: does resection prolong survival? J Am Coll Surg. 1998; 187: 88-92. discussion -3.
58. Musunuru S, Chen H, Rajpal S, et al. Metastatic neuroendocrine hepatic tumors: resection improves survival. Arch Surg. 2006; 141: 1000-4. discussion -5.
59. Nomura N, Fujii T, Kanazumi N, et al. Nonfunctioning neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors: our experience and management. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2009; 16: 639-47.
60. Sarmiento JM, Heywood G, Rubin J, Ilstrup DM, Nagorney DM, Que FG. Surgical treatment of neuroendocrine metastases to the liver: a plea for resection to increase survival. J Am Coll Surg. 2003; 197: 29-37.
61. Schurr PG, Strate T, Rese K, et al. Aggressive surgery improves long-term survival in neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors: an institutional experience. Ann Surg. 2007; 245: 273-81.
62. Touzios JG, Kiely JM, Pitt SC, et al. Neuroendocrine hepatic metastases: does aggressive management improve survival? Ann Surg. 2005; 241: 776-83. discussion 83-5.
63. Barreto S, Chen J, Padbury R, Wilson T, Maddern G, Kanhere H. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: The South Australian perspective. ANZ J Surg. 2010; 80 Suppl 1: A46.
64. Zerbi A, Capitanio V, Boninsegna L, et al. Surgical treatment of pancreatic endocrine tumors in Italy: results of a prospective multicentre study of 262 cases. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2011; 396: 313-21.
65. Hodul PJ, Strosberg JR, Kvols LK. Aggressive surgical resection in the management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: when is it indicated? Cancer Control. 2008; 15: 314-21.
66. Sarmiento JM, Que FG, Grant CS, Thompson GB, Farnell MB, Nagorney DM. Concurrent resections of pancreatic islet cell cancers with synchronous hepatic metastases: outcomes of an aggressive approach. Surgery. 2002; 132: 976-82. discussion 82-3.
67. Hackert T, Hinz U, Fritz S, et al. Enucleation in pancreatic surgery: indications, technique, and outcome compared to standard pancreatic resections. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2011; 396: 1197-203.
68. Kimura W, Tezuka K, Hirai I. Surgical management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surg Today. 2011; 41: 1332-43.
69. Falconi M, Zerbi A, Crippa S, et al. Parenchyma-preserving resections for small nonfunctioning pancreatic endocrine tumors. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010; 17: 1621-7.
70. Fernandez-Cruz L, Blanco L, Cosa R, Rendon H. Is laparoscopic resection adequate in patients with neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors? World J Surg. 2008; 32: 904-17.
71. Falconi M, Bartsch DF, Eriksson B, et al. ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Digestive Neuroendocrine Neoplasms of the Digestive System: Well-Differentiated Pancreatic Non-Functioning Tumors. Neuroendocrinology. 2012; 95: 120-34.
72. Norton JA, Alexander HR, Fraker DL, Venzon DJ, Gibril F, Jensen RT. Comparison of surgical results in patients with advanced and limited disease with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Ann Surg. 2001; 234: 495-505. discussion -6.
73. Norton JA, Kivlen M, Li M, Schneider D, Chuter T, Jensen RT. Morbidity and mortality of aggressive resection in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. Arch Surg. 2003; 138: 859-66.
74. Capurso G, Bettini R, Rinzivillo M, Boninsegna L, Delle Fave G, Falconi M. Role of resection of the primary pancreatic neuroendocrine tumour only in patients with unresectable metastatic liver disease: a systematic review. Neuroendocrinology. 2011; 93: 223-9.
75. Bettini R, Mantovani W, Boninsegna L, et al. Primary tumour resection in metastatic nonfunctioning pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. Dig Liver Dis. 2009; 41: 49-55.
76. Nguyen SQ, Angel LP, Divino CM, Schluender S, Warner RR. Surgery in malignant pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Surg Oncol. 2007; 96: 397-403.
77. Solorzano CC, Lee JE, Pisters PW, et al. Nonfunctioning islet cell carcinoma of the pancreas: survival results in a contemporary series of 163 patients. Surgery. 2001; 130: 1078-85.
78. Steinmuller T, Kianmanesh R, Falconi M, et al. Consensus guidelines for the management of patients with liver metastases from digestive (neuro)endocrine tumors: foregut, midgut, hindgut, and unknown primary. Neuroendocrinology. 2008; 87: 47-62.
79. Jagannath P, Chhabra D, Shrikhande S, Shah R. Surgical treatment of liver metastases in neuroendocrine neoplasms. Int J Hepatol. 2012; 2012: 782672.
80. Basu B, Sirohi B, Corrie P. Systemic therapy for neuroendocrine tumors of gastroenteropancreatic origin. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2010; 17: R75-90.
81. Moertel CG, Hanley JA, Johnson LA. Streptozocin alone compared with streptozocin plus fluorouracil in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1980; 303: 1189-94.
82. Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S, Hahn RG, Klaassen D. Streptozocin-doxorubicin, streptozocin-fluorouracil or chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1992; 326: 519-23.
83. Fjallskog ML, Janson ET, Falkmer UG, Vatn MH, Oberg KE, Eriksson BK. Treatment with combined streptozotocin and liposomal doxorubicin in metastatic endocrine pancreatic tumors. Neuroendocrinology. 2008; 88: 53-8.
84. Ramanathan RK, Cnaan A, Hahn RG, Carbone PP, Haller DG. Phase II trial of dacarbazine (DTIC) in advanced pancreatic islet cell carcinoma. Study of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group-E6282. Ann Oncol. 2001; 12: 1139-43.
85. Bajetta E, Catena L, Procopio G, et al. Are capecitabine and oxaliplatin (XELOX) suitable treatments for progressing low-grade and high-grade neuroendocrine tumors? Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2007; 59: 637-42.
86. Cassier PA, Walter T, Eymard B, et al. Gemcitabine and oxaliplatin combination chemotherapy for metastatic well-differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas: a single-center experience. Cancer. 2009; 115: 3392-9.
87. Kulke MH, Kim H, Clark JW, et al. A Phase II trial of gemcitabine for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer. 2004; 101: 934-9.
88. Kulke MH, Stuart K, Enzinger PC, et al. Phase II study of temozolomide and thalidomide in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2006; 24: 401-6.
89. Strosberg JR, Fine RL, Choi J, et al. First-line chemotherapy with capecitabine and temozolomide in patients with metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. Cancer. 2011; 117: 268-75.
90. Modlin IM, Pavel M, Kidd M, Gustafsson BI. Review article: somatostatin analogues in the treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (carcinoid) tumors. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010; 31: 169-88.
91. Rinke A, Muller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors: a report from the PROMID Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 4656-63.
92. Kvols L, Wiedenmann B, Oberg K, et al. The SOM230 Carcinoid Study Group, 2006. Safety and efficacy of pasireotide (SOM230) in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors refractory or resistant to octreotide LAR: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol. 2006; 24: 198s.
93. Auernhammer CJ, Goke B. Therapeutic strategies for advanced neuroendocrine carcinomas of jejunum/ileum and pancreatic origin. Gut. 2011; 60: 1009-21.
94. Harring TR, Nguyen NT, Goss JA, O'Mahony CA. Treatment of liver metastases in patients with neuroendocrine tumors: a comprehensive review. Int J Hepatol. 2011; 2011: 154541.
95. Kwekkeboom DJ, de Herder WW, Kam BL, et al. Treatment with the radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177 Lu-DOTA 0, Tyr3]octreotate: toxicity, efficacy, and survival. J Clin Oncol. 2008; 26: 2124-30.
96. Kwekkeboom D, Herder W, Kam B, et al. Treatment with the radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177 Lu-DOTA 0, Tyr3]octreotate: toxicity, efficacy, and survival. J Clin Oncol. 2008; 26: 2124-30.
97. Kwekkeboom D, Teunissen J, Bakker W, et al. Radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177Lu-DOTA0, Tyr3]octreotate in patients with endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 2754-62.
98. Kam B, Teunissen J, Krenning E, et al. Lutetium-labelled peptides for therapy of neuroendocrine tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2012; 39 Suppl 1: S103-12.
99. Dubey N, Varshney R, Shukla J, et al. Synthesis and evaluation of biodegradable PCL/PEG nanoparticles for neuroendocrine tumor targeted delivery of somatostatin analog. Drug Deliv. 2012; 19: 132-42.
100. Hanson MW, Feldman JM, Blinder RA, Moore JO, Coleman RE. Carcinoid tumors: iodine-131 MIBG scintigraphy. Radiology. 1989; 172: 699-703.
101. Chastain MA. The glucagonoma syndrome: a review of its features and discussion of new perspectives. Am J Med Sci. 2001; 321: 306-20.
102. Zollinger RM, Ellison EH. Primary peptic ulcerations of the jejunum associated with islet cell tumors of the pancreas. Ann Surg. 1955; 142: 709-23. discussion 24-8.
103. Metz DC. Diagnosis of the Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012; 10: 126-30.
104. Gibril F, Reynolds JC, Chen CC, et al. Specificity of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy: a prospective study and effects of false-positive localizations on management in patients with gastrinomas. J Nucl Med. 1999; 40: 539-53.
105. Metz DC, Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastroenterology. 2008; 135: 1469-92.
106. Wilcox CM, Seay T, Arcury JT, Mohnen J, Hirschowitz BI. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: presentation, response to therapy, and outcome. Dig Liver Dis. 2011; 43: 439-43.
107. Whipple A. The surgical therapy of hyperinsulinism. J Int Chir. 1938; 3: 237-76.
108. Whipple A, Franz V. Adenoma of islet cells with hyperinsulinism. Am Surg. 1935; 101: 1299-335.
109. Stefanini P, Carboni M, Patrassi N, Basoli A. Beta-islet cell tumors of the pancreas: results of a study on 1, 067 cases. Surgery. 1974; 75: 597-609.
110. Grama D, Eriksson B, Martensson H, et al. Clinical characteristics, treatment and survival in patients with pancreatic tumors causing hormonal syndromes. World J Surg. 1992; 16: 632-9.
111. Fidler JL, Fletcher JG, Reading CC, et al. Preoperative detection of pancreatic insulinomas on multiphasic helical CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003; 181: 775-80.
112. Varma V, Tariciotti L, Coldham C, Taniere P, Buckels JA, Bramhall SR. Preoperative localisation and surgical management of insulinoma: single centre experience. Dig Surg. 2011; 28: 63-73.
113. Liu Y, Song Q, Jin HT, Lin XZ, Chen KM. The value of multidetector-row CT in the preoperative detection of pancreatic insulinomas. Radiol Med. 2009; 114: 1232-8.
114. Vaidakis D, Karoubalis J, Pappa T, Piaditis G, Zografos GN. Pancreatic insulinoma: current issues and trends. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2010; 9: 234-41.
115. Angeli E, Vanzulli A, Castrucci M, et al. Value of abdominal sonography and MR imaging at 0. 5 T in preoperative detection of pancreatic insulinoma: a comparison with dynamic CT and angiography. Abdom Imaging. 1997; 22: 295-303.
116. Semelka RC, Cumming MJ, Shoenut JP, et al. Islet cell tumors: comparison of dynamic contrast-enhanced CT and MR imaging with dynamic gadolinium enhancement and fat suppression. Radiology. 1993; 186: 799-802.
117. Druce MR, Muthuppalaniappan VM, O'Leary B, et al. Diagnosis and localisation of insulinoma: the value of modern magnetic resonance imaging in conjunction with calcium stimulation catheterisation. Eur J Endocrinol. 2010; 162: 971-8.
118. Sotoudehmanesh R, Hedayat A, Shirazian N, et al. Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) in the localization of insulinoma. Endocrine. 2007; 31: 238-41.
119. Guettier JM, Kam A, Chang R, et al. Localization of insulinomas to regions of the pancreas by intraarterial calcium stimulation: the NIH experience. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009; 94: 1074-80.
120. Morganstein DL, Lewis DH, Jackson J, et al. The role of arterial stimulation and simultaneous venous sampling in addition to cross-sectional imaging for localisation of biochemically proven insulinoma. Eur Radiol. 2009; 19: 2467-73.
121. Cohen M, Bower R, Fidler S, Johnsonbaugh R, Sode J. Inhibition of insulin release by diphenylhydantoin and diazoxide in a patient with benign insulinoma. Lancet. 1973; 1: 40-1.
122. Wd H, Niederle B, Scoazec J, et al. Well-differentiated pancreatic tumor/carcinoma: insulinoma. Neuroendocrinology. 2006; 84: 183-8.
123. Tucker ON, Crotty PL, Conlon KC. The management of insulinoma. Br J Surg. 2006; 93: 264-75.
124. Lo CY, Lo CM, Fan ST. Role of laparoscopic ultrasonography in intraoperative localization of pancreatic insulinoma. Surg Endosc. 2000; 14: 1131-5.
125. Mabrut JY, Fernandez-Cruz L, Azagra JS, et al. Laparoscopic pancreatic resection: results of a multicenter European study of 127 patients. Surgery. 2005; 137: 597-605.
126. Zhao YP, Zhan HX, Zhang TP, et al. Surgical management of patients with insulinomas: Result of 292 cases in a single institution. J Surg Oncol. 2011; 103: 169-74.
127. Liu H, Peng C, Zhang S, et al. Strategy for the surgical management of insulinomas: analysis of 52 cases. Dig Surg. 2007; 24: 463-70.
128. Kress O, Wagner HJ, Wied M, Klose KJ, Arnold R, Alfke H. Transarterial chemoembolization of advanced liver metastases of neuroendocrine tumors-a retrospective single-center analysis. Digestion. 2003; 68: 94-101.
129. Vogl TJ, Naguib NN, Zangos S, Eichler K, Hedayati A, Nour-Eldin NE. Liver metastases of neuroendocrine carcinomas: interventional treatment via transarterial embolization, chemoembolization and thermal ablation. Eur J Radiol. 2009; 72: 517-28.
130. Gupta S, Johnson MM, Murthy R, et al. Hepatic arterial embolization and chemoembolization for the treatment of patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: variables affecting response rates and survival. Cancer. 2005; 104: 1590-602.
131. Kvols LK, Turaga KK, Strosberg J, Choi J. Role of interventional radiology in the treatment of patients with neuroendocrine metastases in the liver. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2009; 7: 765-72.
132. Madoff DC, Gupta S, Ahrar K, Murthy R, Yao JC. Update on the management of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2006; 17: 1235-49. quiz- 50.
133. Nazario J, Gupta S. Transarterial liver-directed therapies of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases. Semin Oncol. 2010; 37: 118-26.
134. Marrache F, Vullierme MP, Roy C, et al. Arterial phase enhancement and body mass index are predictors of response to chemoembolisation for liver metastases of endocrine tumors. Br J Cancer. 2007; 96: 49-55.
135. Akyildiz HY, Mitchell J, Milas M, Siperstein A, Berber E. Laparoscopic radiofrequency thermal ablation of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases: long-term follow-up. Surgery. 2010; 148: 1288-93. discussion-93.
136. Berber E, Flesher N, Siperstein AE. Laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of neuroendocrine liver metastases. World J Surg. 2002; 26: 985-90.
137. Berber E, Siperstein A. Laparoscopic radiofrequency thermal ablation of adrenal tumors: technical details. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2010; 20: 58-62.
138. Berber E, Tsinberg M, Tellioglu G, Simpfendorfer CH, Siperstein AE. Resection versus laparoscopic radiofrequency thermal ablation of solitary colorectal liver metastasis. J Gastrointest Surg. 2008; 12: 1967-72.
139. Mazzaglia PJ, Berber E, Milas M, Siperstein AE. Laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of neuroendocrine liver metastases: a 10-year experience evaluating predictors of survival. Surgery. 2007; 142: 10-9.
140. Strosberg JR, Cheema A, Kvols LK. A review of systemic and liver-directed therapies for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic tract. Cancer Control. 2011; 18: 127-37.
141. Kalinowski M, Dressler M, Konig A, et al. Selective internal radiotherapy with Yttrium-90 microspheres for hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: a prospective single center study. Digestion. 2009; 79: 137-42.
142. Cao CQ, Yan TD, Bester L, Liauw W, Morris DL. Radioembolization with yttrium microspheres for neuroendocrine tumour liver metastases. Br J Surg. 2010; 97: 537-43.
143. Kennedy AS, Dezarn WA, McNeillie P, et al. Radioembolization for unresectable neuroendocrine hepatic metastases using resin 90Y-microspheres: early results in 148 patients. Am J Clin Oncol. 2008; 31: 271-9.
144. Rhee TK, Lewandowski RJ, Liu DM, et al. 90Y Radioembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine liver tumors: preliminary results from a multi-institutional experience. Ann Surg. 2008; 247: 1029-35.
145. King J, Quinn R, Glenn DM, et al. Radioembolization with selective internal radiation microspheres for neuroendocrine liver metastases. Cancer. 2008; 113: 921-9.
146. Murthy R, Eng C, Krishnan S, et al. Hepatic yttrium-90 radioembolotherapy in metastatic colorectal cancer treated with cetuximab or bevacizumab. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2007; 18: 1588-91.
147. Crowder CD, Grabowski C, Inampudi S, Sielaff T, Sherman CA, Batts KP. Selective internal radiation therapy-induced extrahepatic injury: an emerging cause of iatrogenic organ damage. Am J Surg Pathol. 2009; 33: 963-75.
148. Konda A, Savin MA, Cappell MS, Duffy MC. Radiation microsphere-induced GI ulcers after selective internal radiation therapy for hepatic tumors: an underrecognized clinical entity. Gastrointest Endosc. 2009; 70: 561-7.
149. Mascarenhas NB, Mulcahy MF, Lewandowski RJ, Salem R, Ryu RK. Hepatic abscess after yttrium-90 radioembolization for islet-cell tumor hepatic metastasis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2010; 33: 650-3.
150. Kennedy AS, McNeillie P, Dezarn WA, et al. Treatment parameters and outcome in 680 treatments of internal radiation with resin 90Y-microspheres for unresectable hepatic tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009; 74: 1494-500.
151. Murthy R, Kamat P, Nunez R, et al. Yttrium-90 microsphere radioembolotherapy of hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas after hepatic arterial embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008; 19: 145-51.
152. Saxena A, Chua TC, Bester L, Kokandi A, Morris DL. Factors predicting response and survival after yttrium-90 radioembolization of unresectable neuroendocrine tumor liver metastases: a critical appraisal of 48 cases. Ann Surg. 2010; 251: 910-6.
153. Detjen KM, Welzel M, Farwig K, et al. Molecular mechanism of interferon alfa-mediated growth inhibition in human neuroendocrine tumor cells. Gastroenterology. 2000; 118: 735-48.
154. Hofland LJ, de Herder WW, Waaijers M, et al. Interferon-alpha-2a is a potent inhibitor of hormone secretion by cultured human pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999; 84: 3336-43.
155. Eriksson B, Kloppel G, Krenning E, et al. Consensus guidelines for the management of patients with digestive neuroendocrine tumors-well-differentiated jejunal-ileal tumor/carcinoma. Neuroendocrinology. 2008; 87: 8-19.
156. Boudreaux JP, Klimstra DS, Hassan MM, et al. The NANETS consensus guideline for the diagnosis and management of neuroendocrine tumors: well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors of the Jejunum, Ileum, Appendix, and Cecum. Pancreas. 2010; 39: 753-66.
157. Plockinger U, Wiedenmann B. Neuroendocrine tumors. Biotherapy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 21: 145-62.
158. Verhoef S, van Diemen-Steenvoorde R, Akkersdijk WL, et al. Malignant pancreatic tumour within the spectrum of tuberous sclerosis complex in childhood. Eur J Pediatr. 1999; 158: 284-7.
159. Vignot S, Faivre S, Aguirre D, Raymond E. mTOR-targeted therapy of cancer with rapamycin derivatives. Ann Oncol. 2005; 16: 525-37.
160. Yao JC, Shah MH, Ito T, et al. Everolimus for advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 2011; 364: 514-23.
161. Pavel M, Hainsworth J, Baudin E, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter phase III trial of everolimus+octreotide LAR vs placebo+octreotide lAR in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors (NET) (RADIANT-2). Ann Oncol. 2010; 21 suppl 8: viii4.
162. Yao JC, Phan A, Hoff PM, et al. Targeting vascular endothelial growth factor in advanced carcinoid tumor: a random assignment phase II study of depot octreotide with bevacizumab and pegylated interferon alpha-2b. J Clin Oncol. 2008; 26: 1316-23.
163. Kulke MH, Lenz HJ, Meropol NJ, et al. Activity of sunitinib in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2008; 26: 3403-10.
164. Raymond E, Dahan L, Raoul JL, et al. Sunitinib malate for the treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 2011; 364: 501-13.