Smoking as a Chronic Disease

Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 413-420

  Steinberg, Michael B ^a   Schmelzer, Amy C ^a   Lin, Patrick N ^a   Garcia, Gadiz ^a  

^a RUTGERS ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular risk factor; Cessation pharmacotherapy; Chronic disease model; Nicotine replacement; Smoking cessation; Tobacco dependence

Indexed keywords

EID: 84873522501     PISSN: 19329520     EISSN: 19329563     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12170-010-0125-5     Document Type: Review

References (42)

1. Fiore MC, Bailey WC, Cohen SJ, et al.: Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service; 2000.
2. Heron MP, Hoyert DL, Murphy SL, et al.: Deaths: Final data for 2006. National vital statistics reports; vol 57 no 14. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2009.
3. US Department of Health and Human Services: The Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2004.
4. Benowitz NL: The role of nicotine in smoking-related cardiovascular disease. Prev Med 1997, 26: 412.
5. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al.: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. JAMA 2003, 289: 2560-2572.
6. Hayward RA, Manning WG, Kaplan SH, et al.: Starting insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes: effectiveness, complications, and resource utilization. JAMA 1997, 278: 1663-1669.
7. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Boston University: Framingham Heart Study. Available at http://www. framinghamheartstudy. org/risk/coronary. html. Accessed May 7, 2010.
8. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: Healthy People 2010 Gateway. Available at http://hp2010. nhlbihin. net/atpiii/calculator. asp?usertype=prof. Accessed May 7, 2010.
9. • Steinberg MB, Schmelzer AC, Richardson DL, Foulds J: The case for treating tobacco dependence as a chronic disease. Ann Int Med 2008, 148: 554-557. This case study and review demonstrates the benefit of long-term nicotine inhaler use and suggests that tobacco dependence treatment compares favorably to treatment for diabetes across many characteristics. It suggests that tobacco treatments should be reimbursed to the same degree as diabetes.
10. Plans-Rubio P: Cost-effectiveness of cardiovascular prevention programs in Spain. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 1998, 14: 320-330.
11. Cromwell J, Bartosch WJ, Fiore MC, et al.: Cost-effectiveness of the clinical practice recommendations in the AHCPR guideline for smoking cessation. JAMA 1997, 278: 1759-1766.
12. Gaspoz JM, Coxson PG, Goldman PA, et al.: Cost effectiveness of aspirin, clopidogrel, or both for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 2002, 346: 1800-1806.
13. Franco OH, Peeters A, Looman CW, Bonneux L: Cost effectiveness of statins in coronary heart disease. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005, 59: 927-933.
14. • Kahn R, Robertson RM, Smith R, Eddy D: The impact of prevention on reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2008, 118: 576-585. This study evaluated various prevention strategies and concludes that smoking cessation is the only strategy that is cost-saving over 30 years.
15. Fiore MC, Jaén CR, Baker TB, et al.: Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service; 2008. This clinical practice guideline summarizes the available evidence for several aspects of tobacco dependence treatment including pharmacotherapy, behavioral interventions, and follow-up treatment in various settings.
16. Steinberg MB, Nanavati K, Delnevo CD, Abatemarco DJ: Predictors of self-reported discussion of cessation medications by physicians in New Jersey. Addict Behav 2007, 32: 3045-3053.
17. Linder JA, Rigotti NA, Schneider LI, et al.: An electronic health record-based intervention to improve tobacco treatment in primary care: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2009, 169: 781-787.
18. Rigotti NA, Munafo MR, Stead LF: Smoking cessation interventions for hospitalized smokers. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168: 1950-1960.
19. Koplan KE, Regan S, Goldszer RC, et al.: A computerized aid to support smoking cessation treatment for hospital patients. J Gen Intern Med 2008, 23: 1214-1217.
20. Thomsen T, Tonnesen H, Moller AM: Effect of preoperative smoking cessation interventions on postoperative complications and smoking cessation. Br J Surg 2009, 96: 451-461.
21. The Joint Commission. Screening and Treating Tobacco and Alcohol Use. 2009. Available at http://www. jointcommission. org/PerformanceMeasurement/PerformanceMeasurement/Screening+and+Treating+Tobacco+and+Alcohol+Use. htm. Accessed May 8, 2010.
22. Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, et al.: Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, 1: CD000146.
23. Foulds J, Hughes J, Hyland A, et al.: Barriers to use of FDA-approved smoking cessation medications: implications for policy action. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco and ATTUD. Available at http://www. attud. org/pdf/barriers-smoking-cess-meds. pdf. Accessed May 8, 2010.
24. Murray RP, Bailey WC, Daniels K, et al.: Safety of nicotine polacrilex gum used by 3, 094 participants in the Lung Health Study. Chest 1996, 109: 438-445.
25. • Schnoll RA, Patterson F, Wileyto EP, et al.: Effectiveness of extended-duration transdermal nicotine therapy. Ann Intern Med 2010, 152: 144-151. This randomized trial demonstrates the benefit of longer-term use of the nicotine patch beyond the recommended duration found on the package label. This suggests a need to reconsider the utility of the current labeling for cessation pharmacotherapy, as it appears to be in disagreement with evidence-based data.
26. Cummings KM, Hyland A, Giovino GA, et al.: Are smokers adequately informed about the health risks of smoking and medicinal nicotine? Nicotine Tob Res 2004, Suppl 3: S333-340.
27. Hyland A: Perceptions of NRT safety and efficacy: results from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four C Country Survey. Presented at Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco (SRNT) Preconference Symposium, Increasing Access to Effective Treatments: The Case for More Flexible Regulatory Policy. Austin, TX; February 21, 2007. Available at http://roswelldocs. com/srnt. htm.
28. Benowitz NL: Smoking-induced coronary vasoconstriction: implications for therapeutic use of nicotine. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993, 22: 648-649.
29. Cooke JP, Bitterman H: Nicotine and angiogenesis: a new paradigm for tobacco-related diseases. Ann Med 2004, 36: 33-40.
30. Catassi A, Servent D, Paleari L, et al.: Multiple roles of nicotine on cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis: implications on lung carcinogenesis. Mutat Res 2008, 659: 221-231.
31. Brick J: Handbook of the Medical Consequences of Alcohol and Drug Abuse. New York: The Howarth Press; 2008.
32. Joseph H, Stancliff S, Langrod J: Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT): a review of historical and clinical issues. Mt Sinai J Med 2000, 67: 347-364.
33. Benowitz NL: Clinical pharmacology of nicotine: implications for understanding, preventing, and treating tobacco addiction. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008, 83: 531-541.
34. • Shiffman S, Brockwell SE, Pillitteri JL, Gitchell JG: Use of smoking-cessation treatments in the United States. Am J Prev Med 2008, 34: 102-111. This population-level study demonstrated that the majority of smokers who report making a quit attempt do so without any behavioral or pharmacologic support.
35. • Smith SS, Mccarthy DE, Japuntich SJ, et al.: Comparative effectiveness of 5 smoking cessation pharmacotherapies in primary care clinics. Arch Intern Med 2009, 169: 2148-2155. This randomized trial adds to the data demonstrating the benefit of combination pharmacotherapy for tobacco treatment.
36. • Steinberg MB, Greenhaus S, Schmelzer AC, et al.: Triple Combination pharmacotherapy for medically ill smokers. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2009, 150: 447-454. This randomized trial is the first to demonstrate the benefit of a three-medication combination for treating tobacco dependence in medically ill smokers.
37. Ebbert JO, Burke MV, Hays JT, Hurt RD: Combination treatment with varenicline and nicotine replacement therapy. Nicotine Tob Res 2009, 11: 572-576.
38. Ebbert JO, Croghan IT, Sood A, et al.: Varenicline and bupropion sustained release combination therapy for smoking cessation. Nicotine Tob Res 2009, 11: 234-239.
39. • Apelberg BJ, Onicescu G, Avila-Tang E, Samet JM: Estimating the risks and benefits of nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation in the United States. Am J Public Health 2010, 100: 341-348. This economic model suggests that increased utilization of nicotine replacement medications would significantly reduce premature deaths over a 20-year period.
40. Moore D, Aveyard P, Connock M, et al.: Effectiveness and safety of nicotine replacement therapy assisted reduction to stop smoking: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2009, 338: b1024.
41. Rose JE, Herskovic JE, Behm FM, Westman EC: Precessation treatment with nicotine patch significantly increases abstinence rates relative to conventional treatment. Nicotine Tob Res 2009, 11: 1067-1075.
42. Etter JF, Huguelet P, Perneger TV, Cornuz J: Nicotine gum treatment before smoking cessation: a randomized trial. Arch Intern Med 2009, 169: 1028-1034.