Another inconvenient truth: Fragile families and the looming financial crisis for the welfare state

Family Law Quarterly

Volumn 45, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 329-352

  Parkinson, Patrick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84872453980     PISSN: 0014729X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. See, e.g., SOVEREIGN DEBT AND THE FINANCIAL CRISIS: WILL THIS TIME BE DIFFERENT? (Carlos Primo Braga & Gallina Vincelette, World Bank eds., 2010);
2. KOLB SERIES IN FINANCE, SOVEREIGN DEBT: FROM SAFETY TO DEFAULT (Robert W. Kolb ed., 2011);
3. Carmen M. Reinhart & Kenneth S. Rogoff, The Forgotten History of Domestic Debt, 121 ECON. J. 319 (2011).
4. See, e.g., DOUGLAS W. ELMENDORF, CONGRESSIONAL BUDGET OFFICE, THE BUDGET AND ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: FISCAL YEARS 2011 to 2021 (2011);
5. JOSEPH GAGNON WITH MARC HINTERSCHWEIGER, THE GLOBAL OUTLOOK FOR GOVERNMENT DEBT OVER THE NEXT 25 YEARS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ECONOMY AND PUBLIC POLICY (2011).
6. See, e.g., WILLIAM STEFFEN ET AL., GLOBAL CHANGE AND THE EARTH SYSTEM: A PLANET UNDER PRESSURE (2005);
7. ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL OUTLOOK TO 2030 (2008).
8. KEVIN KINSELLA & VICTORIA VELKOFF, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, SERIES P95/01-1, AN AGING WORLD: 2001 (2001);
9. NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON AGING, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, WHY POPULATION AGING MATTERS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE (2007).
10. ROSE M. KREIDER & RENEE ELLIS, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF CHILDREN: 2009, tbl. 1 (2011).
11. BRYAN RODGERS ET AL., PARENTAL DIVORCE AND ADULT FAMILY, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOMES: THE CONTRIBUTION OF CHILDHOOD FAMILY ADVERSITY, SOCIAL POLICY RESEARCH PAPER no. 42, at 9 (2011). (Twelve percent of forty to forty-four year olds had experienced their parents' living apart by the age of fifteen, compared to 21.5% of twenty to twenty-four year olds.)
12. Ruth Weston & Lixia Qu, Family Statistics and Trends: Trends in Couple Dissolution, 2 FAM. RELATIONSHIPS Q. 9 (2006). (In Australia, for example, there was a sharp rise in the divorce rate after the introduction of no-fault divorce in the Family Law Act 1975, as many people who had separated prior to 1975 sought a formal divorce when the ground for dissolution became irretrievable breakdown proven by one year's separation. By the late 1980s, the divorce rate per 1, 000 married women ranged between 10.6 and 10.9. The rate over the past few years has fluctuated between 12.0 and 13.0 divorces per 1, 000 married women);
13. see also, SUSAN LINACRE, AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF STATISTICS, AUSTRALIAN SOCIAL TRENDS2007: LIFETIME MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE TRENDS, Cat. no. 4102.0, at 3 (2007) (noting the proportion of divorces involving children has actually declined over the last twenty years).
14. Sheela Kennedy & Elizabeth Thomson, Children's Experiences of Family Disruption in Sweden: Differentials by Parent Education over Three Decades, 23 DEMOGRAPHIC RES. 479, 481 (2010) (summarising the international picture, "Overall divorce rates have achieved a high plateau in some countries, while increasing steadily in those where divorce has been rare.").
15. OFFICE OF NATIONAL STATISTICS, DIVORCES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 2009 (2011).
16. Andrew J. Cherlin, Demographic Trends in the United States: A Review of Research in the 2000s, 72 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 403, 405 (2010);
17. Betsey Stevenson & Justin Wolfers, Trends in Marital Stability, in RESEARCH HANDBOOK IN THE LAW AND ECONOMICS OF THE FAMILY (Lloyd R. Cohen & Joshua D. Wright eds., 2011) 96.
18. ELAINE SORENSEN & ARIEL HALPERN, URBAN INSTITUTE, CHILD SUPPORT ENFORCEMENT: HOW WELL IS IT DOING?, DISCUSSION PAPER, 1(1999), available at http://www.urban.org/publications/310324.html.
19. STEPHANIE J. VENTURA, NAT'L CTR. FOR HEALTH STATISTICS, CHANGING PATTERNS OF NONMARITAL CHILDBEARING IN THE UNITED STATES, DATA BRIEF no. 18(2009), available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/dbl8.htm (In 2007, 39.7% of all births in the United States were nonmarital).
20. See SOCIAL POLICY DIVISION, ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION & DEVELOPMENT, SHARE OF BIRTHS OUTSIDE MARRIAGE AND TEENAGE BIRTHS, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/38/6/40278615.pdf (data mostly from 2007).
21. This can be illustrated by Australian data. Throughout the last decade, births of a first child were twice as likely to be to unmarried parents (39%) as births of second or subsequent children (20%). AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF STATISTICS, COUPLES IN AUSTRALIA (2009), available at http://www.abs.gov. au/AUSSTATS/absnsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features20March%20 2009.
22. NATIONAL STATISTICS, POPULATION TRENDS no. 126, at 45, tbl. 3.2(2006), available at http://www.statistics.gov. uk/downloads/theme-population/ PopTrendsl26.pdf.
23. LOUIS O'LEARY ET AL., FERTILITY AND PARTNERSHIP STATUS IN THE LAST TWO DECADES, POPULATION TRENDS no. 140, at 5 (2010).
24. Four percent of all births were outside marriage in 1950. By 1970, the figure was 11%; by 1990, 28%; and by 2003, 35%. Andrew J. Cherlin, American Marriage in the Early Twenty-First Century, 15 (2) FUTURE OF CHILDREN 33, 35 (2005).
25. Jennifer Manlove et al., The Relationship Context of Nonmarital Childbearing in the U. S., 23 DEMOGRAPHIC RES. 615 (2010).
26. In a study of eleven European countries, Kiernan found that cohabiting relationships which did not result in marriage were much more fragile than marriages, either preceded by a period of cohabitation or without a prior period of cohabitation. In Britain, only 18% of such relationships survived for ten years. The levels of stability of cohabitation were higher in other countries, but in no country, other than East Germany, did the majority of cohabiting partnerships survive for ten years. Kathleen Kiernan, Cohabitation in Western Europe, 96 POPULATION TRENDS 25 (1999).
27. The Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that 42% of those in a de facto marriage in 2006-07, stated that they expected to enter into a registered marriage with their current partner. AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF STATISTICS, FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS AND TRANSITIONS, AUSTRALIA, 2006-07(2011), available at http://www.abs.gov. au/AUSSTATS/absnsf/allprimarymainfea-tures/E0C7AEEEAE3AD51 BCA25789C0023D7EF?opendocument.
28. On gender differences concerning cohabitation with a view to eventual marriage, see, Penelope Huang et al., He Says, She Says: Gender and Cohabitation, 32 J. FAM. ISSUES 876 (2011);
29. Sharon Sassier & James McNally, Cohabiting Couples' Economic Circumstances and Union Transitions: A Re-examination Using Multiple Imputation Techniques, 32 SOCIAL SCIENCE RES. 553 (2003);
30. Susan L. Brown, Union Transitions Among Cohabitors: The Significance of Relationship Assessments and Expectations, 62 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 833 (2000).
31. For Australian evidence, see Sandra Buchler et al., The Social and Demographic Characteristics of Cohabiters in Australia: Towards a Typology of Cohabiting Couples, Fam. Matters no. 82, at 22 (2009).
32. On the different meanings of commitment, see Jan Pryor & Josie Roberts, What Is Commitment? How Married and Cohabiting Parents Talk About Their Relationships, Fam. Matters no. 71, 24 (2005).
33. Recent Australian research indicates that people who are cohabiting, but intend to marry (either as a first or subsequent marriage), are significantly less likely to separate compared to those who cohabit without having marriage plans. Sandra Buchler et al., Cohabitation Outcomes: The Effect of Fertility Intentions, Relationship Satisfaction and Union Length on Cohabitation Transitions, Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey Research Conference 14(2009), available at http://melbourneinstitute.com/downloads/hilda/ Bibliography/2009-papers/Buchler,%20Sandra-paper.pdf.
34. ARLAND THORNTON ET AL., MARRIAGE AND COHABITATION (2007);
35. Larry L. Bumpass & James A. Sweet, National Estimates of Cohabitation, 26 DEMOGRAPHY 615 (1989);
36. Renata Forste, Prelude to Marriage or Alternative to Marriage? A Social Demographic Look at Cohabitation in the U. S., 4 J. L. & FAM. STUD. 91 (2002);
37. Helen Glezer, Cohabitation and Marriage Relationships in the 1990s, FAM. MATTERS no. 47, 5 (1997);
38. Steven L. Nock, A Comparison of Marriages and Cohabiting Relationships, 16 J. FAM. ISSUES 53 (1995).
39. The term "fragile-families" refers to families in which the parents are unmarried at the time of the child's birth, in order to "underscore that they are families and that they are at greater risk of breaking up and living in poverty than more traditional families." The Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, About Fragile Families (2011), available at http://www.fragile families.princeton. edu/about.asp.
40. See also Nancy E. Reichman et al., Fragile Families: Sample and Design, 23 CHILD. & YOUTH SERVS. REV. 303, 306 (2001).
41. Cynthia Osborne et al., Married and Cohabiting Parents' Relationship Stability: A Focus on Race and Ethnicity, 69 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 1345 (2007).
42. Kathleen K. Kiernan & Fiona K. Mensah, Unmarried Parenthood, Family Trajectories, Parent and Child Weil-Being in Children of the 21st Century: From Birth to Age 5, 77 (K. Hansen et al. eds., 2010) (28% of cohabitors had broken up compared with 10% of married couples).
43. See also Ann Berrington, Entry into Parenthood and the Outcome of Cohabiting Partnerships in Britain, 63 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 80 (2001) (showing 26% of all cohabiting partnerships dissolved within five years, 16% continued, and 59% resulted in marriage. For women, the presence of children born within the partnership had no effect on either the probability that they would marry or the rate of separation, compared to women without children, although for men, the birth of a child had a stabilizing effect on the partnership);
44. Kathleen Kieman, Childbearing Outside Marriage in Western Europe, 98 POPULATION TRENDS 11, tbl. 11 (1999) (the probability of a relationship surviving three and five years after the birth of a first child to a woman aged twenty to forty-five was lower for cohabiting relationships than for marriages in nine countries studied).
45. Ruth Weston & Lixia Qu, Family Statistics and Trends: Trends in Couple Dissolution, Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2 FAM. RELATIONSHIPS Q. 9 (2007).
46. PETER BUTTERWORTH ET AL., FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH RELATIONSHIP DISSOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN, SOCIAL POLICY RESEARCH PAPER no. 37, at 22, 29, tbl. 9 (2008).
47. In the United States, see, e.g., James B. McLindon, Separate but Unequal: The Economic Disaster of Divorce for Women and Children, 21 FAM. L. Q. 351 (1987);
48. Saul D. Hoffman & Greg J. Duncan, What Are the Economic Consequences of Divorce?, 25 DEMOGRAPHY 641 (1988).
49. In Britain, see JOHN EEKELAAR & MAVIS MACLEAN, MAINTENANCE AFTER DIVORCE (1986).
50. Margaret F. Brinig & June Carbone, The Reliance Interest in Marriage and Divorce, 62 TUL. L. REV. 855 (1988);
51. Carl E. Schneider, Rethinking Alimony: Marital Decisions and Moral Discourse, 1991 BYU L. REV. 197.
52. See SETTLING UP: PROPERTY AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION ON DIVORCE IN AUSTRALIA (Peter McDonald ed., 1986);
53. KATHLEEN FUNDER ET AL., SETTLING DOWN: PATHWAYS OF PARENTS AFTER DIVORCE (1993).
54. J. Hughes, Repartnering After Divorce: Marginal Mates and Unwedded Women, 55 FAM. MATTERS no. 55, 16 (2000).
55. For international evidence, see Hans-Jürgen Andreb, et al., The Economic Consequences of Partnership Dissolution-A Comparative Analysis of Panel Studies from Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Sweden, 22 EUROPEAN SOC. REV. 533 (2006).
56. For recent Australian research, see BRUCE SMYTH & RUTH WESTON, FINANCIAL LIVING STANDARDS AFTER DIVORCE: A RECENT SNAPSHOT, RESEARCH PAPER no. 23 (2000);
57. Jerry Silvey & Bob Birrell, Financial Outcomes for Parents After Separation, 12 PEOPLE & PLACE o45 (2004);
58. SIMON KELLY & ANN HARDING, NAT'L CTR. FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC MODELLING, LOVE CAN HURT, DIVORCE WILL COST, INCOME AND WEALTH REPORT Issue 10 (2005).
59. For an analysis of United States data, see, SANDFORD L. BRAVER WITH DIANE O'CONNELL, DIVORCED DADS: SHATTERING THE MYTHS (1998).
60. On methodological issues in the studies conducted in the 1980s, see Annemette Sørensen, Estimating the Economic Consequences of Separation and Divorce: A Cautionary Tale from the United States, in THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE: THE INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 263 (Lenore J. Weitzman & Mavis Maclean eds., 1992).
61. Judith A. Seltzer, Relationships Between Fathers and Children Who Live Apart: The Father's Role After Separation, 53 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 79 (1991);
62. Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr. et al., The Life Course of Children of Divorce: Marital Disruption and Parental Contact, 48 AM. SOC. REV. 656 (1983);
63. Judith A. Seltzer & Suzanne M. Bianchi, Children's Contact with Absent Parents, 50 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 663 (1988).
64. Paul R. Amato et al., Changes in Nonresident Father-Child Contact From 1976 to 2002, 58 FAM. REL. 41 (2009).
65. Patricia A. McManus & Thoma A. Di Prete, Losers and Winners: The Financial Consequences of Separation and Divorce for Men, 66 AM. SOC. REV. 246 (2001).
66. Countries vary significantly in their approach to spousal maintenance in practice. See, PATRICK PARKINSON, FAMILY LAW AND THE INDISSOLUBILITY OF PARENTHOOD chs. 2 & 11 (2011).
67. For a survey of the then legislative position in different European countries, see 2 EUROPEAN FAMILY LAW IN ACTION, MAINTENANCE BETWEEN FORMER SPOUSES (Katharina Boele-Woelki et al. ed., 2003).
68. LENORE J. WEITZMAN, THE DIVORCE REVOLUTION: THE UNEXPECTED SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES FOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN AMERICA 180 (1985)
69. (citing PAUL HAROLD JACOBSON, AMERICAN MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE 126 (1959)).
70. Marygold S. Melli, Alimony Trends, 19 FAM. ADVOC. 21 (1996-1997).
71. Robert F. Kelly & Greer Litton Fox, Determinants of Alimony Awards: An Empirical Test of Current Theories and a Reflection on Public Policy, 44 SYRACUSE L. REV. 641, 643 (1993).
72. Marsha Garrison, Good Intentions Gone Awry: The Impact of New York's Equitable Distribution Law on Divorce Outcomes, 57 BROOK. L. REV. 621 (1991).
73. ROLAND PROKSCH, RECHTSTATSACHLICHE UNTERSUCHUNG ZUR REFORM DES KINDSCHAFTSRECHTS 172 (2002).
74. Another study of 1, 500 divorced couples, published in 2003, examined receipt of spousal maintenance during the period of separation but before the divorce. Seventy-six percent of women were eligible, but only 28% of these received spousal maintenance in full while another 9% received some, but not all, that had been agreed, or received it irregularly. HANS-JURGEN ANDREB ET AL., WENN AUS LIEBE ROTE ZAHLEN WERDEN: DIE WIRTSCHAFTLICHEN FOLGEN VON TRENNUNG UND SCHEIDUNG 15 (2003).
75. Harold D. Krause, Child Support Reassessed: Limits of Private Responsibility and the Public Interest, 1989 U. III. L. REV. 367, 372 (1989).
76. Irwin Garfinkel et al., A Brief History of Child Support Policies in the United States, in FATHERS UNDER FIRE: THE REVOLUTION IN CHILD SUPPORT ENFORCEMENT 14, 18 (Irwin Garfinkel et al. eds., 1998).
77. U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, CHILD SUPPORT AND ALIMONY: 1989, available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/childsupport/cs89.html.
78. 42 U. S. C § 602 (a) (26) (B) (1988).
79. See, e.g., Solangel Maldonado, Beyond Economic Fatherhood: Encouraging Divorced Fathers to Parent, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 921, 936-37 (2005).
80. Robert G. Williams, An Overview of Child Support Guidelines in the United States, in CHILD SUPPORT GUIDELINES: THE NEXT GENERATION 1, 1 (Margaret Campbell Haynes ed., 1994);
81. Jane C. Venohr & Robert G. Williams, The Implementation and Periodic Review of State Child Support Guidelines, 33 FAM. L. Q. 7 (1999).
82. David L. Chambers, Fathers, the Welfare System, and the Virtues and Perils of Child Support Enforcement, 81 VA. L. REV. 2575, 2589 (1995).
83. TIMOTHY S. GRALL, CUSTODIAL MOTHERS AND FATHERS AND THEIR CHILD SUPPORT: 2007(2009), available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-237.pdf.
84. REPORT OF THE MINISTERIAL TASKFORCE ON CHILD SUPPORT, IN THE BEST INTERESTS OF CHILDREN: REFORMING THE CHILD SUPPORT SCHEME 95 (2005).
85. Average weekly earnings were $1, 243.50, which equates to $64, 662 annually. See Australian Bureau of Statistics, Average Weekly Earnings, cat. no. 6302.0, available at http://www.ausstats.abs.gov. au/Ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/376AFC773288BA43CA25761000197A9 F/$File/63020-may%202009.pdf (if all part-time workers are included, the figure is still over $48, 000 per annum).
86. CHILD SUPPORT AGENCY, supra note 67, at 1 (2009).
87. SARA MCLANAHAN & GARY D. SANDEFUR, GROWING UP WITH A SINGLE PARENT: WHAT HURTS, WHAT HELPS (1994);
88. Paul R. Amato & Joan G. Gilbreth, Nonresident Fathers and Children's Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis, 61 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 557, 564 (1999);
89. Sara S. McLanahan, Father Absence and the Welfare of Children, in COPING WITH DIVORCE, SINGLE PARENTING AND REMARRIAGE: A RISK AND RESILIENCY PERSPECTIVE 117, 130-35 (Mavis Hetherington ed., 1999).
90. See, e.g., B. Jane Elliott & Martin P. M. Richards, Children and Divorce: Educational Performance and Behaviour Before and After Parental Separation, 5 INT'L J. L. & FAM. 258 (1991);
91. Sara S. McLanahan, Diverging Destinies: How Children Are Faring Under the Second Demographic Transition, 41 DEMOGRAPHY 607 (2004).
92. In 2003, one in five Australians needed ongoing assistance because of a disability, a long-term condition or the frailty of age. Of these, about 70% (2, 826, 300) were living in the community. Sharyn Lymer et al., The Cost of Caring in Australia 2002 to 2005. Who Cares?, INCOME AND WEALTH REPORT Issue 13, 9 (2006).
93. Loretta Brewer, Gender Socialization and the Cultural Construction of Elder Caregivers, 15 J. AGING STUD. 217 (2001).
94. J. Thomas Oldham, Changes in the Economic Consequences of Divorces, 958-2008, 42 FAM. L. Q. 419, 424 (2008).
95. Ira Mark Ellman, Marital Roles and Declining Marriage Rates, 41 FAM. L. Q. 455, 465 (2007). Since the late 1990s, there has been a modest increase in the proportion of stay-at-home mothers in marriages, but this must be read in the context of a decline in marriage rates and corresponding rise in cohabitation.
96. Matthew McKeever & Nicholas H. Wolfinger, Shifting Fortunes in a Changing Economy: Trends in the Economic Well-being of Divorced Women, in FRAGILE FAMILIES AND THE MARRIAGE AGENDA 127, 143-45 (Lori Kowaleski-Jones & Nicholas H. Wolfinger eds., 2006).
97. THE 2010 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE FEDERAL OLD-AGE AND SURVIVORS INSURANCE AND FEDERAL DISABILITY INSURANCE TRUST FUNDS (2010), available at http://ssa.gov/oactyTR/2010/tr10.pdf.
98. In the context of the United States, see Dorothy P. Rice & Norman Fineman, Economic Implications of Increased Longevity in the United States, 25 ANN. REV. PUB. HEALTH, 03. 1 (2004).
99. In Australia, see, e.g., AUSTRALIAN PRODUCTIVITY COMMISSION, CARING FOR OLDER AUSTRALIANS (2011).
100. For Australian research, see DAVID DE VAUS ET AL., AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF FAMILY STUDIES, THE CONSEQUENCES OF DIVORCE FOR FINANCIAL LIVING STANDARDS IN LATER LIFE (2007).
101. Pamela Symes, Indissolubility and the Clean Break, 48 MOD. L. REV. 44 (1985).
102. RELATIONSHIPS FOUNDATION, COUNTING THE COST OF FAMILY FAILURE (2011).
103. REBECCA WALBERG & ANDREA MROZEK, INSTITUTE OF MARRIAGE AND FAMILY CANADA, PRIVATE CHOICES, PUBLIC COSTS: HOW FAILING FAMILIES COST US ALL (2009), available at http://www.imfcanada.org/article-files/ cost%20of%20Family%20Breakdown%20finalHR.pdf.
104. BENJAMIN SCAFJDI, THE TAXPAYER COSTS OF DIVORCE AND UNWED CHILDBEARING (2008), available at http://www.americanvalues.org/pdfs/COFF.pdf.
105. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION, STRATEGIC DIRECTION FOR CHILD MALTREATMENT PREVENTION: PREVENTING CHILD MALTREATMENT THROUGH THE PROMOTION OF SAFE, STABLE, AND NURTURING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CHILDREN AND CAREGIVERS, available at http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/CM-Strategic-Direction- Long-a.pdf.
106. The U. S. Administration for Children and Families lists five protective factors that organisations working with families should seek to promote: (1) nurturing and attachment; (2) knowledge of parenting and youth development; (3) parental resilience; (4) social connections; and (5) concrete supports for parents. ADMINISTRATION ON CHILDREN, YOUTH AND FAMILIES, ADMINISTRATION FOR CHILDREN AND FAMILIES, U. S. DEP'T OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVS., STRENGTHENING FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES: 2011 RESOURCE GUIDE (2011), available at www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/guide2011/guide.pdfage=21.
107. See also, CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF SOCIAL POUCY, STRENGTHENING FAMILIES: PROTECTIVE FACTORS: THE FIVE PROTECTIVE FACTORS FRAMEWORK, available at http://www.cssp.org/reform/strengthening-families/basic-one-pagers/ Strengthening-Families-Protective-factors.pdf (providing a similar, but not identical list).
108. SOCIAL JUSTICE POLICY GROUP, BREAKTHROUGH BRITAIN: ENDING THE COSTS OF SOCIAL BREAKDOWN vol. 1, at 17 (2007).
109. For further details of the proposed streams, see Harry Benson, Bristol Community Family Trust, Relationship Education Proposals (2007), available at http://www.bcft.co.uk/images/Relationshipeducationinvitationscheme2007.pdf.
110. Phillip Cowan & Carolyn Pape Cowan, Diverging Family Policies to Promote Children's Well-Being in the UK and US: Some Relevant Data from Family Research and Intervention Studies, 3 J. CHILD. SERVICES 4 (2008);
111. Martin Pinquart & Daniela Teubert, Effects of Parenting Education with Expectant and New Parents: A Meta-analysis, 24 J. FAM. PSYCHOL. 316 (2010).
112. PATRICK PARKINSON, FOR KIDS' SAKE: REPAIRING THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR AUSTRALIAN CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE (2011), available at http://Sydney.edu.au/ law/news/docs-pdf-images/2011/Sep/FKS-ResearchReport.pdf
113. ROBERT G. WOOD ET AL., MATHEMATICA POLICY RESEARCH, STRENGTHENING UNMARRIED PARENTS' RELATIONSHIPS: THE EARLY IMPACTS OF BUILDING STRONG FAMILIES (2010);
114. BARBARA DEVANEY & ROBIN DION, MATHEMATICA POLICY RESEARCH, 15-MONTH IMPACTS OF OKLAHOMA'S FAMILY EXPECTATIONS PROGRAM (2010).
115. See also M. ROBIN DION ET AL., MATHEMATICA POLICY RESEARCH, THE BUILDING STRONG FAMILIES PROJECT: IMPLEMENTATION OF EIGHT PROGRAMS TO STRENGTHEN UNMARRIED PARENT FAMILIES (2010), available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ opre/strengthen/build-fam/reports/unmarried-parents/16-impact-main-rpt.pdf.
116. Susan L. Brown, Marriage and Child Weil-Being: Research and Policy Perspectives, 72 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 1059, 1062 (2010) (references omitted).
117. See also Paul R. Amato, Research on Divorce: Continuing Trends and New Developments, 72 J. MARRIAGE & FAM. 650, 653 (2010) ("Research during the last decade continued to show that children with divorced parents, compared with children with continuously married parents, score lower on a variety of emotional, behavioral, social, health, and academic outcomes, on average.... Although many of these studies replicate earlier findings, they are useful in showing that the links between divorce and forms of child well-being have remained relatively constant across decades.");
118. Sara McLanahan & Christine Percheski, Family Structure and the Reproduction of Inequalities, 34 ANN. REV. SOC. 257, 264-65 (2008) ("A large body of research indicates that living apart from a biological parent (typically the father) is associated with a host of negative outcomes that are expected to affect children's future life chances or ability to move up the income ladder).
119. For discussion, see, e.g., Paul R. Amato, The Impact of Family Formation Change on the Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Weil-Being of the Next Generation, 15 FUTURE OF CHILDREN 75 (2005);
120. John E. Murray, Marital Protection and Marital Selection: Evidence from a Historical-Prospective Sample of American Men, 37 DEMOGRAPHY 511 (2000);
121. Lee A. Lillard & Constantijn W. A. Panis, Marital Status and Mortality: The Role of Health, 33 DEMOGRAPHY 313 (1996).
122. Wendy D. Manning & Pamela J. Smock, Measuring and Modeling Cohabitation: New Perspectives from Qualitative Data, 67 J. Marriage & Fam. 989 (2005);
123. Scott M. Stanley et al., Sliding Versus Deciding: Inertia and the Pre-Marital Cohabitation Effect, 55 Fam. Relations 499 (2006).
124. In the United States, the "marriage penalty", as it has been called, is a major cause for concern. See, e.g., CHARLES A. DONOVAN, A MARSHALL PLAN FOR MARRIAGE: REBUILDING OUR SHATTERED HOMES, BACKGROUNDER no. 2567 (2011);
125. ALEX ROBERTS & DAVID BLAKENHORN, INSTITUTE FOR AMERICAN VALUES, THE OTHER MARRIAGE PENALTY: A NEW PROPOSAL TO ELIMINATE THE MARRIAGE PENALTY FOR LOW-INCOME AMERICANS, RESEARCH BRIEF no. 3 (2006.);
126. Adam Carasso & C. Eugene Steuerle, The Hefty Penalty on Marriage Facing Many Households with Children, 15 FUTURE OF CHILDREN 157 (2005).
127. In the United Kingdom, see THE CENTRE FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE, DYNAMIC BENEFITS: TOWARDS WELFARE THAT WORKS (2009);
128. THE CENTRE FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE: GREEN PAPER ON THE FAMILY 4. 2. 3 (2010).