Changes in the economic consequences of divorces, 1958-2008

Family Law Quarterly

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 419-447

  Oldham, J Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 69249200454     PISSN: 0014729X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (338)

1. Joseph Campbell & Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth 7 (Betty Sue Flowers ed., 1988).
2. See Paul Jacobson, American Marriage and Divorce 90 tbl.42 (1959).
3. Id. at 122.
4. Id. at 122.
5. see also Americans for Divorce Reform, http://www.divorcereform.org/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2008).
6. See Americans for Divorce Reform, supra note 4
7. Roderick Phillips, Untying the Knot-A Short History of Divorce (1991).
8. See Nat'l Ctr. for Health Statistics, Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, Births, Marriages, Divorces and Deaths: Provisional Data for 2006, 55 Nat'l Vital Stat. Rep. 20, Aug. 28, 2007, at tbl.A.
9. Betsey Stevenson & Justin Wolfers, Marriage and Divorce: Changes and Their Driving Forces, 21 J. Econ. Persp. 27, 29 (2007).
10. See Betsey Stevenson & Justin Wolfers, Trends in Marital Stability fig.1, Oct. 9, 2007, http://bpp.wharton.upenn.edu/jwolfers/index.shtml (showing the rates of divorce over time for couples marrying in the 1950s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s).
11. See Samuel Preston & John McDonald, The Incidence of Divorce Within Cohorts of American Marriages Contracted Since the Civil War, 16 Demography 3, 4, 11 (1979)
12. see also Stevenson & Wolfers, supra note 8, fig. 1 (showing about a 50% probability of divorce by the twenty-fifth year of marriage for those couples marrying in the 1970s).
13. See Teresa Castro Martin & Larry Bumpass, Recent Trends in Marital Disruption, 25 Demography 37, 40 (1989)
14. Robert Schoen, The Continuing Retreat from Marriage, 71 Soc. Sci. Res., Jan. 1987, at 108, 108-109.
15. See Stevenson & 3Wolfers, supra note 8, fig. 1
16. see also R. Kelly Raley & Larry Bumpass, The Topography of the Divorce Plateau: Levels and Trends in Union Stability in the United States After 1980, 8 Demographic Res. 245 (2003), available at www.demographic-research.0rg/ V0lumes/Vol8/8.
17. See generally Stephanie Coontz, Marriage: A History (2005).
18. See Ira Mark Ellman, Marital Roles and Declining Marriage Rales, 41 Fam. L.Q. 455, tbl.1 (2007).
19. Id. at 456 n.3
20. see also Pamela Smock, The Wax and Wane of Marriage: Prospects for Marriage in the 21st Century, 66 J. Marriage & Fam. 966 (2004).
21. See Infoplease.com, Percent Never Married, 1970-2006, http://www.infoplease.com/ ipa/A0763219.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2008) (citing U.S. Census data).
22. See Robert Moffitt, Female Wages, Male Wages and the Economic Model of Marriage: The Basic Evidence, in Linda Waite, The Ties That Bind 309 (2000).
23. Herve Varenne, Love and Liberty: The Contemporary American Family, in 2 A History of the Family: The Impact of Modernity 427 tbl.21 (A. Burguire, C. Klapisch-Zuber, M. Segalen & F. Zonabend eds., 1996)
24. see also Jason Fields & Lynne M. Casper, U.S. Census Bureau, P20-537, America's Families and Living Arrangements: Population Characteristics 10 (2001) (providing data by gender).
25. See Pamela J. Smock & Wendy D. Manning, Living Together Unmarried in the United States: Demographic Perspectives and Implications for Family Policy, 26 Law & Pol'y 87, 88-89 (2004).
26. See Sam Roberts, if You're Married You're Now in the Minority, Study Shows, Houston Chron., Oct. 15, 2006, at A3 (discussing U.S. Census Bureau statistics)
27. see also Pamela J. Smock & Sanjiv Gupta, Cohabitation in Contemporary North America, in Alan Booth & Ann C. Crouter, Just Living Together 53, 55 (2002)
28. Smock & Manning, supra note 18, at 89.
29. See Professor Marsha Garrison's article, Nonmarital Cohabitation: Social Revolution and Legal Regulation, in this issue.
30. See also Pamela J. Smock, Cohabitation in the United States: An Appraisal of Research Themes, Findings, and Implications, 26 Am. Rev. Soc. 1, 3 (2000).
31. See J. Thomas Oldham, Divorce, Separation and the Distribution of Property § 1.02 (2008).
32. See id.
33. see also Sarah Avellar & Pamela Smock, The Economic Consequences of the Dissolutions of Cohabitating Unions, 67 J. Marriage & Fam. 315 (2005).
34. See Nat'l Ctr. for Health Statistics, Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, Cohabitation, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the United States, 23 Vital Health Stat. 22, July 2002, at 28 fig. 47.
35. Id. at 122.
36. See Greg J. Duncan & Saul D. Hoffman, Economic Consequences of Marital Instability, in Horizontal Equity, Uncertainty, and Economic Well-Being 427, 437 (M. David & T. Smeeding eds., 1985).
37. See Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage, Revised and Enlarged Edition 28 (1992).
38. See Alison Walker et al., Living in Britain: Results from the 2001 General Household Survey 52 (2002).
39. See Pamela Smock, Remarriage and Cohabitation Among Previously Married Women 11 (Nat'l Survey of Families & Households, Working Paper No. 31).
40. See Nat'l Ctr. for Health Statistics, supra note 23, at 78
41. see also Paul Glick & Sung-Ling Lin, Remarriage After Divorce, Soc. Persp., Apr. 1987, at 165-166
42. James Sweet & Larry Bumpass, American Families and Households 195 (1987).
43. See Cherlin, supra note 26, at 67 (providing data on the rate of divorce in remarriages)
44. see also Stevenson & Wolfers, supra note 7, at 34 tbl.1.
45. Stevenson & Wolfers, supra note 7, at 40 tbl. 2.
46. See Rose M. Kreider, U.S. Census Bureau, P70-97, Number, Timing and Duration of Marriage and Divorce: 2001 11 (2005).
47. Id. at 122.
48. Id. at 122.
49. Id. at 122.
50. See June O'Neill, The Wage Gap Between Men and Women in the United States, 3 Int'l Rev. Comp. Pub. Pol'y 351, 357 (1991).
51. See Ellman, supra note 13, at 465.
52. Id. at 122.
53. Id. at 122.
54. See id. at 466.
55. Id. at 122.
56. Id. at 122.
57. Id. at 122.
58. Id. For a recent attempt to explain the continuing existence of the wage gap, see June O'Neil, Catching Up: The Gender Gap in Wages, Circa 2000, American Economic Assoc. Papers and Proceedings May 2003, at 309.
59. For a discussion of changes in female labor force participation at law firms over the past few decades, see generally Judith S. Kaye & Anne C. Reddy, The Progress of Women Lawyers at Big Firms: Steadied or Simply Studied?, 76 Fordham L. Rev. 1941 (2008).
60. See Ira Mark Ellman, Divorce Rates, Marriage Rates, and the Problematic Persistence of Traditional Marital Roles, 34 Fam. L.Q. 1, 24 (2000).
61. See Steven L. Nock, When Married Spouses Are Equal, 9 Va. J. Soc. Pol'y & L. 48, 52 (2001).
62. See J. Thomas Oldham, Putting Asunder in the 1990s, 80 Cal. L. Rev. 1091, 1107, 1114 n. 112 (1992)
63. see also Ann Crittenden, The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World Is Still the Least Valued 94-98 (2001).
64. See Lynne M. Casper & Suzanne M. Bianchi, Continuity and Change in the American Family 290 (2001)
65. see also Phillip N. Cohen & Suzanne M. Bianchi, Marriage, Children, and Women's Employment: What Do We Know?, 122 Monthly Lab. Rev. 22, 27 tbl.2 (1999).
66. See Jane Waldfogel, The Family Gap for Young Women in the United States and Britain: Can Maternity Leave Make a Difference?, 16 J. Lab. Econ. 509, 532 (1998).
67. See Charles A. Calhoun & Thomas J. Espinshade, Childbearing and Wives' Foregone Earnings, 42 Pop. Stud. 5, 24 (1988)
68. see also Victor R. Fuchs, Women's Quest for Economic Equality 62 (1988).
69. See generally Sarah Avellar & Pamela Smock, Has the Price of Motherhood Declined Over Time? A Cross-Cohort Comparison of the Motherhood Wage Penalty, 65 J. Marriage & Fam. 597 (2003).
70. See Michelle J. Budig & Paula England, The Wage Penalty for Motherhood, 66 Am. Soc. Rev. 204 (2001).
71. See Tallese D. Johnson, U.S. Census Bureau, P70-113, Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns of First-Time Mothers: 1961-2003 (2008).
72. Id. at 4.
73. Id. at 6.
74. Id. at 122.
75. See Ellman, supra note 13, at 475.
76. See Johnson, supra note 52, at 8.
77. Id. at 12.
78. See Heather Joshi, Pierella Paci & Jane Waldfogel, The Wages of Motherhood: Better or Worse?, 23 Cambridge J. Econ. 543 (1999).
79. See Matthew McKeever & Nicholas H. Wolfinger, Reexamining the Economic Costs of Marital Disruption for Women, 82 Soc. Sci. Q. 202 (2001).
80. See Johnson, supra note 52, at 2.
81. See Wendy Sigle-Rushton & Jane Waldfogel, Motherhood and Women's Earnings in Anglo-American, Continental European, and Nordic Countries 30 (Luxembourg Income Study Working Paper No. 454, Dec. 2006)
82. see also Avellar & Smock, Has the Price of Motherhood Declined Over Time? A Cross-Cohort Comparison of the Motherhood Wage Penalty, 65 J. Marriage & Fam. 597 (2003), supra note 50.
83. For other studies finding a somewhat smaller motherhood wage penalty, see D. Anderson, M. Binder & K. Krause, The Motherhood Wage Penalty: Which Mothers Pay It and Why?, 92 Am. Econ. Rev. 354 (2002)
84. H. Taniguchi, The Timing of Childbearing and Women's Wages, 61 J. Marriage & Fam. 1008 (1999).
85. See Elizabeth Arias, Div. of Vital Statistics, Ctrs. for Disease Control & Prevention, United States Life Tables, 2003, 54 Nat'l Vital Stat. Rep. 14, Mar. 28, 2007, http://www. cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr54/nvsr54-14.pdf.
86. See generally William de Funiak, The New Community Property Jurisdictions, 22 Tul. L. Rev. 264 (1947).
87. See Judith Younger, Marital Regimes, 67 Cornell L. Rev. 45, 70 (1981).
88. See generally Stanley Surrey, Federal Taxation of the Family-the Revenue Act of 1948, 61 Harv. L. Rev. 1097(1948).
89. See Lovett v. Lovett, 11 Ala. 763 (1847) (all property may be divided)
90. Van Brunt v. Van Brunt, 34 P. 1117 (Kan. 1893)
91. Klump v. Klump, 121 N.E.2d 273 (Ohio App. 1954) (stating that when wife obtained a divorce from the husband due to his fault, there could be a division of his property and an alimony award)
92. see also Act of Apr. 12, 1962, ch. 101, 1962 Alaska Sess. Laws (adopting Alaska Stat. § 12.14(6)) (all property may be divided)
93. Act 77, 1955 Haw. Sess. Laws (amending Haw. Rev. Stat. § 12-226) (same)
94. Act No. 42, 1949 Mich. Pub. Acts (enacting Mich. Comp. Laws § 25.136) (court may award the husband some or all of the wife's property)
95. S.F. No. 509, ch. 551, 1951 Minn. Laws (enacting Minn. Stat. § 518.58) (all property may be divided)
96. S.B. No. 225, ch. 184, 1911 N.D. Laws (enacting N.D. Cent. Code § 4073) (same)
97. -1923 Okla. Sess. Laws (enacting Okla. Stat. § 4969) (court may divide "jointly acquired" property)
98. S.B. 174, ch. 219, sec. 1, 1923 S.D. Sess. Laws (amending S.D. CoDlfiED Laws § 165 (all property may be divided)
99. Act of Mar. 22, 1909, ch. 109, § 4, 1909 Utah Laws (adding Utah Code Ann. § 1212) (same)
100. Act No. 49, § 1, 1929 Vt. Acts & Resolves (all property may be divided)
101. Act of Mar. 8, 1882, ch. 15, § 15, 1882 Wyo. Sess. Laws (all property may be divided).
102. Although the matter had been somewhat unclear for a period in Kansas, in Garver v. Garver, 334 P.2d 145 (Kan. 1959)
103. Superseded by statute, Kan. Stat. Ann. § 60-1610(b) (1963)
104. As recognized in Cady v. Cady, 581 P.2d 358 (Kan. 1978)
105. The Kansas Supreme Court clarified that, in those instances where a wife was obtaining a divorce based on the husband's fault, the trial court should
106. (i) award the wife all her property owned as of the date of marriage or acquired "in her own right" during marriage, (ii) grant reasonable alimony, and (iii) divide property jointly acquired during marriage. Garver, 334 P.2d at 149.
107. See generally Dan Hopson, Property Rights in Divorce and Separate Maintenance Cases, 30 J. Kan. B. Ass'n 302 (1932)
108. Elizabeth J. Cheadle, Comment, the Development of Sharing Principles in Common Law Marital Property Stales, 28 UCLA L. Rev. 1269 (1981)
109. Vernier states that in 1931, twenty-two states gave a divorce court "some measure of discretion as to the disposition of the parties' property." Chester G. Vernier, 2 American Family Laws: A Comparative Study of the Family Law of the Forty-Eight American States, Alaska, the District of Columbia and Hawaii (to Jan. 1, 1931) 216 (1932). Of course, this would include the eight community property states.
110. For a discussion of the economic consequences of divorce in the nineteenth century, see Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America 66-80 (1986).
111. See Wis. Stat. § 2364(1898).
112. See Act 705, 1979 Ark. Acts (amending Ark. Code Ann. § 34-12-14)
113. H.B. 1299, ch. 130, 1971 Colo. Sess. Laws (adopting Colo. Rev. Stat. § 46-1-13).
114. Act No. 73-373, § 20, 1973 Conn. Acts
115. H.B. 610, ch. 350, Del. Laws (1974) (adopting Del. Code Ann. tit. 13, § 1513)
116. D.C. Law 1-107 (Apr. 2, 1977) (amending D.C. Code § 16-910)
117. S.B. No. 152, ch. 88-98,1988 Fla. Laws (adopting Fla. Stat. § 61.075)
118. Pub. L. No. 297, 1973 Ind. Acts (adding chap. 165 to Ind. Code. § 31-1
119. H.F. 2562, ch. 1175, 1980 Iowa Acts (enacting Iowa Code § 398.21)
120. S.B. 133, § 9, 1972 Ky. Acts (enacting Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 403.190)
121. Act of Jan. 1, 1972, ch. 399, 1972 Me. Laws (enacting Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 19, §722A)
122. Act of May 29, 1978, ch. 794, 1978 Md. Laws (enacting Md. Code Ann. § 3-6A-03 to 05)
123. Act of July 19
124. -1974, ch. 565, 1974 Mass. Acts (amending Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 208, § 34)
125. Act of Aug. 6, 1973, § 7, 1973 Mo. Laws (codifying Mo. Rev. Stat. § 453.330)
126. Act of May 6, 1975, ch. 536, 1975 Mont. Laws (enacting Mont. Code Ann. § 48-321)
127. Leg. Bill 1015, 1974 Neb. Laws (amending Neb. Rev. Stat. § 42-365)
128. H.B. 36, ch. 278, 1987 N.H. Laws (adding N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 458:16a)
129. Act of June 14, 1971, ch. 212, 1980 N.J. Laws (amending N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2A:34-23)
130. Act of June 19, 1980, ch. 281, 1980 N.Y. Laws (amending N.Y. Dom. Rel. Law § 236)
131. S.B. 24, ch. 815, 1981 N.C. Sess. Laws (adding N.C. Gen. Stat. § 50-20)
132. H.B. 514, 1990 Ohio Laws (adding Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3105.171)
133. H.B. 1239, ch. 280, § 13, Or. Laws (enacting Or. Rev. Stat. § 107.105)
134. H.B. 640, 1980 Pa. Laws 26; Ch. 279, 1979 R.I. Pub. Laws (enacting R. I. Gen. Laws §§ 15.5-16.1), H. 2008, No. 522, 1986 S.C. Acts (enacting S.C. Code Ann. § 20-7-472)
135. H. 691, ch. 309, 1982 Va. Acts (enacting Va. Code Ann. § 20-107.3)
136. H.B. 1694, ch. 60, 1984 W. Va. Acts (enacting W. Va. Code § 48-2-32).
137. See generally Stokes v. Stokes, 271 S.E.2d 169 (Ga. 1980)
138. Jones v. Jones, 532 So. 2d 574 (Miss. 1988).
139. See Robert Levy, Special Comm. on Divorce, Nat'l Conference of Comm'rs on Unif. State Laws, Uniform Marriage and Divorce Legislation: A Preliminary Analysis 142 (1969).
140. See Jacobson, supra note 2, at 127.
141. Id. at 122.
142. Id. In William Goode's study of divorces in Michigan after World War II, he found that when divorcing couples had any property, it was more common for the wife to receive property than the husband.
143. See William J. Goode, After Divorce 220 (1956).
144. For historical discussions of alimony awards, see generally, Alicia Brokars Kelly, Rehabilitating Partnership Marriage as a Theory of Wealth Distribution at Divorce: In Recognition of a Shared Life, 19 Wis. Women's L.J. 141 (2004)
145. Mary E. O'Connell, Alimony After No-Fault: A Practice in Search of a Theory, 23 New Eng. L. Rev. 437 (1988)
146. Chester G. Vernier & John B. Hurlbut, The Historical Background of Alimony Law and Its Present Statutory Structure, 6 Law & Contemp. Probs. 197 (1939).
147. Homer Clark, The Law of Domestic Relations in the United States 450 (1 st ed. 1968).
148. See generally Oldham, supra note 21.
149. See id. § 10.03.
150. See Brown v. Brown, 544 P.2d 561 (Cal. 1976)
151. Cearley v. Cearley, 544 S.W.2d 661 (Tex. 1976).
152. See Oldham, supra note 21, § 7.11.
153. See id. §7.10.
154. See U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dep't of Labor, National Compensation Survey: Employee Benefits in Private Industry in the United States, March 2007, at 7 (2007) (reporting that 51% of all workers in private industry and 60% of all full-time workers participated in some type of a retirement benefit).
155. See O'Brien v. O'Brien, 489 N.E.2d 712 (N.Y. 1985).
156. See Oldham, supra note 21, §3.03.
157. Id. at 122.
158. See Marsha Garrison, The Economics of Divorce: Changing Rules, Changing Results, in Divorce Reform at the Crossroads 75, 83, 91 (Stephen D. Sugarman & Herma Hill Kay eds., 1990) [hereinafter Garrison, The Economics of Divorce]
159. Marsha Garrison, Good Intentions Gone Awry: The Impact of New York's Equitable Distribution Law on Divorce Outcomes, 57 Brooklyn L. Rev. 621, 634 (1991) [hereinafter Garrison, Good Intentions Gone Awry] (20% of divorcing spouses had pensions).
160. See generally Charles E. Welch III & Sharon Price-Bonham, A Decade of No-Fault Revisited: California, Georgia and Washington, 45 J. Marriage & Fam. 411 (1983).
161. See Garrison, The Economics of Divorce, supra note 84, at 84
162. see also Lenore Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution 169 (1985)
163. cf. Lenore J. Weitzman & Ruth B. Dixon, The Alimony Myth: Does No-Fault Divorce Make a Difference?, 14 Fam. L.Q. 141, 157(1980) (finding a small increase in the frequency of alimony awards in marriages that lasted more than ten years).
164. See Marsha Garrison, How do Judges Decide Divorce Cases?, 74 N.C. L. Rev. 401, 468 (1996).
165. See Weitzman & Dixon, supra note 85, at 174.
166. See generally Hammer v. Hammer, 991 P.2d 195 (Alaska 1999)
167. Gripshover v. Gripshover, 2008 WL 465345 (Ky. 2008)
168. Bernier v. Bernier, 873 N.E.2d 216 (Mass. 2007)
169. Holley v. Holiey, 969 So. 2d 842 (Miss. 2007)
170. Christian v. Christian, 742 N.W.2d 819 (N.D. 2007)
171. Craig v. Craig, 617 S.E.2d 359 (S.C. 2005)
172. Fausch v. Fausch, 697 N.W.2d 748 (S.D. 2005)
173. Sloan v. Sloan, 632 S.E.2d 45 (W.Va. 2006)
174. Chamberlain v. Chamberlain, 615 N.W.2d 405 (Minn. App. 2000)
175. Cox v. Cox, 762 A.2d 1040 (N.J. Super. 2000).
176. See Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 8.051 (Vernon 2005).
177. See Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 19-A, § 951-A (2002).
178. See Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 8.055.
179. See La. Civ. Code Ann. art. 112(c) (2006).
180. See Cal. Fam. Code §§ 4320, 4330 (West 2002) (no spousal support if less than ten years of marriage)
181. -13 Del. Code Ann. tit. 13, § 1512(d) (2008) (no support if less than twenty years of marriage)
182. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 19-A, § 951-A (spousal support for marriages of more than ten but less than twenty years).
183. See Kan. Stat. Ann. § 60-1610(b)(2) (2007) (alimony term may not exceed 121 months)
184. Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 8.054 (maximum term of three years of support unless the recipient is disabled)
185. Utah Code Ann. § 30-3-5 (2008) (alimony term may not exceed the length of the marriage, absent extenuating circumstances).
186. See Weitzman, supra note 85, at 56 tbl. 2
187. Mary Ann Glendon, The New Marriage and the New Property 94 (1981)
188. Garrison, Good Intentions Gone Awry, supra note 84, at 633.
189. See text accompanying supra note 79.
190. See Craig Copeland, Employee Benefit Research Inst., Issue Brief No. 311, Employment-Based Retirement Plan Participation: Geographic Differences and Trends, 2006, at 7 (2007).
191. See id. at 8.
192. See generally U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, supra note 80.
193. See Weitzman, supra note 85, at 62 (24% of husbands had a pension compared with 11% of all wives)
194. Garrison, Good Intentions Gone Awry, supra note 84, at 665.
195. See Grania Sheehan, Financial Aspects of the Divorce Transition in Australia: Recent Empirical Findings, 26 Int'l J. L. Pol'y & Fam. 95, 103 n.28 (2002) (citing J. Dewar, G. Sheehan & J. Hughes, Superannuation and Divorce in Australia (Austl. Inst, of Family Studies, Working Paper No. 18, 1999)).
196. Id. For a more recent study from Australia, see Grania Sheehan, April Chrzanowski, and John Dewar, Superannuation and Divorce in Australia, 22 Int'l J. L. Pol'y & Fam. 206 (2008) (finding that at least one spouse had a pension right in 93% of the divorcing couples surveyed).
197. See Oldham, supra note 21, § 9.02[I] (citing numerous instances where professional degrees and certifications were found to be worth more than one million dollars, and in some instances, more than three million dollars, citing, for example, Gold v. Gold, 714 N.Y.S.2d 323 (App. Div. 2000)).
198. See Nat'l Ass'n of Realtors, Median Sales Price of Existing Single-Family Homes for Metropolitan Areas (2008), http.//www.realtor.org/research.nsf/files/ MSAPRICESF.pdf/$FILFVMSAPRICESF.pdf.
199. See Christine Haughney, Buy Low, Divorce High, N.Y. Times, Aug. 12, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/12/fashion/12divorce.html.
200. See Jacobson, supra note 2, at 127.
201. See Vernier & Hurlbut, supra note 73, at 202
202. Clark, supra note 74, at 445.
203. See Weber v. Weber, 140 N.W. 1052, 1055 (1913) (court may terminate a recipient's support when she "chooses a life of shame and dishonor").
204. See generally M.L. Cross, Annotation, Divorced Wife's Subsequent Misconduct as Authorizing or Affecting Modification of Decree for Alimony, 6 A.L.R.2d 859 (1949).
205. See generally J. Thomas Oldham, Premarital Agreements Are Now Enforceable, Unless ..., 21 Hous. L. Rev. 757 (1984).
206. See Oldham, supra note 21, § 4.03.
207. See generally Marsh v. Marsh, 949 S.W.2d 734 (Tex. Ct. App. 1997).
208. See generally Burtoff v. Burtoff, 418 A.2d 1085 (D.C. App. 1980)
209. Lutgert v. Lutgert, 338 So. 2d 1111 (Fla. App. 1976)
210. DeLorean v. DeLorean, 511 A.2d 1257 (N.J. Super. Ct. Ch. Div. 1986)
211. Barbara Atwood, Ten Years Later: Lingering Concerns about the Uniform Premarital Agreement Act, 19 J. Legis. 127 (1993)
212. Gail F. Brod, Premarital Agreements and Gender Justice, 6 Yale J. L. & Feminism 229 (1994)
213. J. Thomas Oldham, Book Review, 54 U. Colo. L. Rev. 469, 486 n.87 (1983) (reviewing Lenore Weitzman, The Marriage Contract (1981))
214. Judith Younger, Perspectives on Antenuptial Agreements, 40 Rutgers L. Rev. 1059 (1988).
215. See Oldham, supra note 21, § 12.02[3].
216. See 42 U.S.C. § 402(b)(1) (2006)
217. -20 C.F.R. § 404.331 (2008).
218. See Sheryl L. Scheible, Bankruptcy and the Modification of Support: Fresh Start, Head Start, or False Start?, 69 N.C. L. Rev. 577, 578 (1991).
219. th Cir. 1975).
220. th Cir. 2003).
221. th ed. 2007).
222. See generally Janet Leach Richards, A Guide to Spousal Support and Property Division Claims Under the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005, 41 Fam. L.Q. 227 (2007).
223. See generally Henry H. Foster, Divorce Reform and the Uniform Act, 18 S.D. L. Rev. 572 (1973).
224. See generally Family Law in the Fifty States, 39 Fam. L.Q. 920 (2006).
225. See Lenore J. Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution 74, 164-167 (1985).
226. See generally Allen Parkman, No-Fault Divorce: What Went Wrong? (1992).
227. See Weitzman, supra note 85.
228. See generally S.L. Braver, M. Whitley & C Ng, Who Divorced Whom? Methodological and Theoretical Issues, 20 J. Divorce & Remarriage 1 (1993).
229. See Garrison, The Economics of Divorce, supra note 84, at 90-100.
230. See Health Insurance for the Aged and Disabled, Pub. L. No. 89-97,79 Stat. 291 (1965) (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 1395-1395iii (2008)).
231. See Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003, Pub. L. 108-173, 117 Stat. 2066
232. David Pratt, The New Medicare Part D Prescription Drug Benefit, 17 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 337 (2007).
233. See Krause, Elrod, Garrison & Oldham, supra note 116, at 251-56.
234. See J.T. Oldham, Developments in the U.S.-The Struggle Over the Creation of a Status for Same-Sex Partners, in The International Survey of Family Law 481 (Andrew Bainham ed., 2006).
235. See generally Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (1989)
236. Milton C. Regan, Jr., Alone Together: Law and the Meanings of Marriage (1999)
237. Stephen D. Sugarman, Dividing Financial Interests Upon Divorce, in Divorce Reform at the Crossroads, supra note 84, at 159-60
238. Margaret F. Brinig, Property Distribution Physics: The Talisman of Time and Middle Class Law, 31 Fam. L.Q. 93 (1997)
239. Tonya Brito, Spousal Support Takes on the Mommy Track: Why the ALl Proposal is Good for Working Mothers, 8 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 151 (2001)
240. Penelope Eileen Bryan, Vacant Promises?: The ALI Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution and the Post-Divorce Financial Circumstances of Women, 8 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 167 (2001)
241. June Carbone, The Futility of Coherence: The ALI's Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution, Compensatory Spousal Payments, 4 J.L. & Fam. Stud. 43 (2002)
242. Robert Kirkman Collins, The Theory of Alimony Residuals: Applying an Income Adjustment Calculus to the Enigma of Alimony, 24 Harv. Women's L.J. 23 (2001)
243. Jane Ellis, New Rules for Divorce: Transition Payments, 32 U. Louisville J. Fam. L. 601 (1994)
244. Ira Ellman, The Theory of Alimony, 77 Cal. L. Rev. 3 (1989)
245. Ann Laquer Estin, Maintenance, Alimony and the Rehabilitation of Family Care, 71 N.C. L. Rev. 721 (1993)
246. Marsha Garrison, The Economic Principles of Divorce: Would Adoption of the ALI Principles Improve Current Outcomes?, 8 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 119 (2001)
247. Kelly, supra note 73
248. J. Thomas Oldham, ALI Principles of Family Dissolution: Some Comments, 1997 U. ILL. L. Rev. 801
249. Jane Rutherford, Duty in Divorce: Shared Income as a Path to Equality, 58 Fordham L. Rev. 539 (1990)
250. Jana B. Singer, Divorce Reform and Gender Justice, 67 N.C. L. Rev. 1103 (1989)
251. Cynthia Ann Starnes, Divorce and the Displaced Homemaker: A Discourse on Playing with Dolls, Partnership Buyouts, and Dissociation Under No Fault, 60 U. Chi. L. Rev. 67 (1993)
252. Joan Williams, Is Coverture Dead? Beyond a New Theory of Alimony, 82 Geo. L. J. 2227 (1994).
253. The author would like to thank Nick Bala and Carol Rogerson for help with the Canadian material.
254. See Carol Rogerson, Informal Law Reform: Canada's Experiment with Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines 3 (July 25, 2007) [hereinafter Informal Law Reform] (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Law and Society Association).
255. See Carol Rogerson, The Canadian Law of Spousal Support, 38 Fam. L.Q. 69, 78 (2004) (citing Pelech v. Pelech, [1987] 1 S.C.R. 801 (Can.)).
256. [1992] 3 S.C.R. 813 (Can.).
257. See Rogerson, supra note 130, at 79-87.
258. [1999] 1 S.C.R. 420 (Can.).
259. See Rogerson, supra note 130, at 87-93.
260. For example, Professor Rollie Thompson made a presentation in 2001 entitled "Everything is Broken: No More Spousal Support Principles?," to the Continuing Legal Education Society of British Columbia, Family Law Conference (e-mail from Prof. Thompson to the author).
261. See generally Alberta Law Reform Inst., Report for Discussion No. 18.2, Family Law Project: Spousal Support (1998), http://www.law.ualberta.ca/alri/ docs/rfdO182.pdf.
262. See generally Lorne D. Bertrand, Joseph J. Hornick, Joanne J. Paetsch & Nicholas Bala, Dep't of Justice Can., Phase 2 of the Survey of Child Support Awards: Final Report (2004), www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/sup-pen/pub/2004- 7/2004-7.pdf.
263. See Informal Law Reform, supra note 129, at 11.
264. See generally Carol Rogerson, Developing Spousal Support Guidelines in Canada: Beginning the Discussion (2002), http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/dept-min/ pub/ss-pae/ss-pae.pdf.
265. See generally V. Jennifer Mackinnon & E. Jane Murray, Magical Mystery Tour: Seeking Greater Consistency in Spousal Support Awards, 22 Can. Fam. L.Q. 215 (2004).
266. See Informal Law Reform, supra note 129, at 15.
267. See generally Carol Rogerson & Rollie Thompson, Dep't of Justice Can., Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines: A Draft Proposal (2005), http://www.fathers-resources.com/LinkClick.aspx?link=spousal-support-advisory- guidelines-e.pdf&tabid=424&mid=1386.
268. See Informal Law Reform, supra note 129, at 15-20.
269. See generally G.V. v. C.G., [2006] R.J.Q. 5231 (Can.), Carol Rogerson & Rollie Thompson, The Advisory Guidelines 17 Months Later (2006), http://www.cba.org/CBA/Sections/pdf/Spousal-Guidelines-June28-06.pdf (summarizing criticisms).
270. See Fisher v. Fisher, [2008] 88 O.R.3d 241 (Can.)
271. S.C. v. J.C., [2006] 299 N.B.R.2d 334 (Can.)
272. th 77 (Can.) (rejecting the use of the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines).
273. See generally J.J. Paetsch, L.D. Bertrand & N. Bala, Dep't of Justice Can., Survey on the Practice of Family Law in Canada, 2004-2006 (2006), http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/ pi/pad-rpad/rep-rap/ccfjs-sjfae/index.html#toc.
274. See Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines July 2008, prepared by Carol Rogerson and Rollie Thompson, available at Professor Rogerson's faculty webpage at www.law.utoronto.ca/faculty/rogerson/ssag.html, or at http://canada.justice. gc.ca/eng/pi/pad-rpad/res/spag/index.html.
275. The author is aware of no statutory enactments during the past decade in response to these efforts. Indeed, a brief review of recent case law suggests that these law reform efforts by American commentators have had little effect.
276. For example, the ALI proposal regarding spousal support, which was made with much fanfare six years ago, has been cited in only a handful of cases, and has not had a significant impact on the result in any case.
277. See Cullum v. Cullum, 160 P.3d 231 (Ariz. 2007)
278. Acker v. Acker, 904 So. 2d 384, 389 (Fla. 2005) (Bell, J., concurring)
279. Cohan v. Feuer, 442 Mass. 151, 810 N.E.2d 1222 (Mass. 2004)
280. Mani v. Mani, 183 N.J. 70, 869 A.2d 904 (N.J. 2005)
281. Simonds v Simonds, 886 A.2d 158, 173 (Md. Ct. Spec. App. 2005) (Adkins, J., concurring).
282. See Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 25-319 (2008)
283. Colo. Rev. Stat. § 14-10-114 (2007)
284. Conn. Gen. Stat. § 46b-82 (2007)
285. Ga. Code Ann. § 19-6-5 (2008)
286. Idaho Code Ann. § 32-705 (2007)
287. Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 403.200 (West 2008)
288. La. Civ. Code art. 112 (2008)
289. Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 208, § 34 (2008)
290. Minn. Stat. § 518.552 (2007)
291. Mo. Rev. Stat. § 452.335 (2007)
292. Mont. Code Ann. § 40-4-203 (2007)
293. Nev. Rev. Stat. § 125.150 (2007)
294. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 458:19 (2007)
295. N.Y. Dom. Rel. Law § 236 (McKinney 2007)
296. N.C Gen. Stat. § 50-16.3A (2007)
297. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3105.18 (West 2008)
298. R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-5-16 (2007)
299. Tenn. Code Ann. § 36-5-121 (2007)
300. Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 15, § 752 (2007)
301. Va. Code Ann. § 20-107.1 (2008)
302. Wash. Rev. Code § 26.09.090 (2008)
303. W. Va. Code § 48-6-301 (2007).
304. See Leslie Hernden Spillane, Spousal Support: The Other Ohio Lottery, 24 Ohio N.U. L. Rev. 282, 296 (1998) (summarizing survey results of judges regarding the alimony amount divorcing spouses should receive in certain situations)
305. Brett. R. Turner, Spousal Support in Chaos, 25 Fam. Advoc., Spr. 2003, at 14.
306. See Marsha Garrison, How Do Judges Decide Divorce Cases? An Empirical Analysis of Discretionary Decision Making, 74 N.C. L. Rev. 401, 481 (1996).
307. Id. at 487.
308. Id. at 122.
309. Id. at 489.
310. See supra note 127.
311. See Allen M. Parkman, the ALI Principles and Marital Quality, 8 Duke J. Gender L. & Pol'y 157, 169-170 (2001).
312. See MyAzbar.com, Maricopa County Spousal Maintenance Guidelines, http://www. myazbar.org/SecComm/Sections/FA/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2008)
313. see also Ira Mark Ellman, The Maturing Law of Divorce Finances: Toward Rules and Guidelines, 33 Fam. L.Q. 801, 812 (1999).
314. See Twila B. Larkin, Guidelines for Alimony: The New Mexico Experiment, 38 Fam. L.Q. 29, 56 (2004).
315. See Ga. Code Ann. § 19-6-1(b) (2008)
316. La. Civ. Code art. 111 (2008).
317. See Ellman, supra note 155, at 812.
318. Id. at 122.;
319. see also Cullum v. Cullum, 160 P.3d 231, 235 (Ariz. 2007). This resembles Professor Sugarman's proposal.
320. See generally Sugarman, supra note 127.
321. See Am. Law Inst., Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution: Analysis and Recommendations 807, § 5.04 illus. 1 (2003) [hereinafter ALI Principles].
322. See ALI Principles, supra note 160, at 843, § 5.05 illus. 6 (employing an annual accrual rate of 1.5% for primary caretaker years).
323. See Todd L. Torvinen, The So-Called "Tonopah Formula" for Alimony Explained, 17 Nev. Fam. L. Rep. 2, Sept. 2002, at 9-10, available at http://www.nvbar.org/Sections/FamilyLaw/NFLR/Sept2002.pdf.
324. See ALI Principles, supra note 160, at 843, § 5.05 illus. 6.
325. See Johnson County Bar Ass'n, Family Law Guidelines 69-70, § 5.5 (2005] http://www.jocobar.org/pdf/guidelines2005.pdf.
326. See Pa. R. Civ. P. 1910.16-4(a) pt. IV.
327. See 23 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 4322 (2008)
328. Mascaro v. Mascaro, 803 A.2d 1186, 1190-1199 (Pa. 2002).
329. See Larkin, supra note 156, at 51.
330. See generally Statewide Alimony Comm., Alimon' Guidelines and Commentaries (Revised) (2006), http://www.nmcourts.com/newface/newalimony/ guidelines.pdf. For another discussion of these various guidelines
331. see generally Mar Kay Kisthardt, Rethinking Alimony: The AAML's Considerations for Calculating Alimon) Spousal Support or Maintenance, 21 J. Am. Acad. Matrimonial Law 61 (2008).
332. See Larkin, supra note 156, at 59-60.
333. See Johnson County Bar Ass'n, supra note 164, at 71-73, § 5.8.
334. Id. at 122.
335. See Larkin, supra note 156, at 56. This resembles Professor Singer's proposal.
336. See generally Singer, supra note 127.
337. See ALI Principles, supra note 160, at 849, § 5.06.
338. See Torvinen, supra note 162, at 10.