When does native language input affect phonetic perception? The precocious case of lexical tone

Journal of Memory and Language

Volumn 68, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 123-139

  Yeung, H Henny ^a   Chen, Ke Heng ^a   Werker, Janet F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cantonese; English; Infancy; Mandarin Chinese; Speech perception; Tone

Indexed keywords

EID: 84871938237     PISSN: 0749596X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.09.004     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Anderson J.L., Morgan J.L., White K.S. A statistical basis for speech sound discrimination. Language and Speech 2003, 46:155-182.
2. Bauer R.S., Benedict P.K. Modern Cantonese phonology 1997, Mouton de Gruyter, Boston.
3. Bertoncini J., Bijeljac-Babic R., Jusczyk P.W., Kennedy L.J., Mehler J. An investigation of young infantsr perceptual representations of speech sounds. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1988, 117:21-33. 10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.21.
4. Best C.T., Jones C. Stimulus-alternation preference procedure to test infant speech discrimination. Infant Behavior and Development 1998, 21:295.
5. Best C.T., McRoberts G.W. Infant perception of non-native consonant contrasts that adults assimilate in different ways. Language and speech 2003, 46:183-216.
6. Best C.T., McRoberts G.W., LaFleur R., Silver-Isenstadt J. Divergent developmental patterns for infantsr perception of two nonnative consonant contrasts. Infant Behavior and Development 1995, 18:339-350. 10.1016/0163-6383(95)90022-5.
7. Best C.T., McRoberts G.W., Sithole N.M. Examination of perceptual reorganization for nonnative speech contrasts: Zulu click discrimination by English-speaking adults and infants. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1988, 14:345-360.
8. Best C.T. A direct realist view of cross-language speech perception. Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language speech research 1995, 171-204. York Press, Timonium, MD. W. Strange (Ed.).
9. Blicher D.L., Diehl R.L., Cohen L.B. Effects of syllable duration on the perception of the Mandarin Tone 2/Tone 3 distinction: Evidence of auditory enhancement. Journal of Phonetics 1990, 18:37-49.
10. Bock K., Mazella J. Intonational marking of a given and new information: Some consequences for comprehension. Memory & Cognition 1983, 11:64-76.
11. Bonatti L.L., Peñea M., Nespor M., Mehler J. Linguistic constraints on statistical computations: The role of consonants and vowels in continuous speech processing. Psychological Science 2005, 16:451-459. 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01556.x.
12. Bortfeld H., Morgan J.L. Is early word-form processing stress-full? How natural variability supports recognition. Cognitive Psychology 2010, 60:241-266. 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.01.002.
13. Bosch L., Sebastián-Gallés N. Simultaneous bilingualism and the perception of a language-specific vowel contrast in the first year of life. Language and Speech 2003, 46:217-243. 10.1177/00238309030460020801.
14. Braun B., Johnson E.K. Question or tone 2? How language experience and linguistic function guide pitch processing. Journal of Phonetics 2011, 39:585-594. 10.1016/j.wocn.2011.06.002.
15. Chandrasekaran B., Gandour J.T., Krishnan A. Neuroplasticity in the processing of pitch dimensions: A multidimensional scaling analysis of the mismatch negativity. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 2007, 25:195-210.
16. Chandrasekaran B., Krishnan A., Gandour J.T. Mismatch negativity to pitch contours is influenced by language experience. Brain Research 2007, 1128:148-156. 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.10.064.
17. Chao Y.R. A grammar of spoken Chinese: Zhong guo hua de wen fa 1968, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
18. Cheour M., Ceponiene R., Lehtokoski A., Luuk A., Allik J., Alho K., et al. Development of language-specific phoneme representations in the infant brain. Nature Neuroscience 1998, 1:351-353.
19. Cohen L.B., Atkinson D.J., Chaput H.H. Habit 2000: A new program for testing infant perception and cognition [Computer software] 2000, The University of Texas, Austin.
20. Cooper R.P. The development of infantsr preference for motherese. Infant Behavior and Development 1997, 20:477-488.
21. Cowan N., Morse P.A. The use of auditory and phonetic memory in vowel discrimination. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1986, 79:500-507.
22. Cristia A. Fine-grained variation in caregiversr /s/ predicts their infantsr /s/ category. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2011, 129:3271-3280. 10.1121/1.3562562.
23. Cutler A., Chen H.-C. Lexical tone in Cantonese spoken-word processing. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 1997, 59:165-179. 10.3758/BF03211886.
24. Cutler A., Mehler J. The periodicity bias. Journal of Phonetics 1993, 21:103-108.
25. Da, J. (2004). Chinese text computing. (Retrieved 26.07.12). http://lingua.mtsu.edu/chinese-computing.
26. Dahan D., Tanenhaus M.K., Chambers C.G. Accent and reference resolution in spoken-language comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language 2002, 47:292-314. 10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00001-3.
27. Dietrich C., Swingley D., Werker J.F. Native language governs interpretation of salient speech sound differences at 18 months. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2007, 104:16027-16031. 10.1073/pnas.0705270104.
28. Echols C.H., Crowhurst M.J., Childers J.B. The perception of rhythmic units in speech by infants and adults. Journal of Memory and Language 1997, 225:202-225.
29. Eimas P.D. The equivalence of cues in the perception of speech by infants. Infant Behavior and Development 1985, 8:125-138. 10.1016/S0163-6383(85)80001-1.
30. Fennell C.T., Waxman S.R. What paradox? Referential cues allow for infant use of phonetic detail in word learning. Child Development 2010, 81:1376-1383. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01479.x.
31. Fernald A. Four-month-old infants prefer to listen to motherese. Infant Behavior and Development 1985, 8:181-195.
32. Fernald A. Intonation and communicative intent in mothersr speech to infants: Is the melody the message?. Child Development 1989, 60:1497-1510.
33. Fernald A., Kuhl P.K. Acoustic determinants of infant preference for motherese speech. Infant Behavior and Development 1987, 10:279-293. 10.1016/0163-6383(87)90017-8.
34. Flege J.E., Bohn O.-S., Jang S. Effects of experience on non-native speakersr production and perception of English vowels. Journal of Phonetics 1997, 25:437-470.
35. Francis A.L., Ciocca V. Stimulus presentation order and the perception of lexical tones in Cantonese. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2003, 114:1611. 10.1121/1.1603231.
36. Francis A.L., Ciocca V., Ma L., Fenn K. Perceptual learning of Cantonese lexical tones by tone and non-tone language speakers. Journal of Phonetics 2008, 36(2):268-294. 10.1016/j.wocn.2007.06.005.
37. Francis A.L., Ciocca V., Wong N.K.-Y., Leung W.H.-Y., Chu P.C.-Y. Extrinsic context affects perceptual normalization of lexical tone. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2006, 119:1712. 10.1121/1.2149768.
38. Friederici A.D., Friedrich M., Christophe A. Brain responses in 4-month-old infants are already language specific. Current Biology 2007, 17:1208-1211. 10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.011.
39. Gandour J.T. Perceptual dimensions of tone: Evidence from Cantonese. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 1981, 9:20-36.
40. Gandour J.T. Tone perception in Far Eastern languages. Journal of Phonetics 1983, 11:149-175.
41. Gandour J.T., Harshman R.A. Crosslanguage differences in tone perception: A multidimensional scaling investigation. Language and Speech 1978, 21:1-33. 10.1177/002383097802100101.
42. Gauthier B., Shi R., Xu Y. Learning phonetic categories by tracking movements. Cognition 2007, 103:80-106. 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.03.002.
43. Gauthier B., Shi R., Xu Y. Simulating the acquisition of lexical tones from continuous dynamic input. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2007, 121:EL190-EL195. 10.1121/1.2716160.
44. Gottfried T.L., Suiter T.L. Effect of linguistic experience on the identification of Mandarin Chinese vowels and tones. Journal of Phonetics 1997, 25:207-231. 10.1006/jpho.1997.0042.
45. Gussenhoven C. The phonology of tone and intonation 2004, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
46. Hallé P.A., Chang Y.-C., Best C.T. Identification and discrimination of Mandarin Chinese tones by Mandarin Chinese vs. French listeners. Journal of Phonetics 2004, 32:395-421. 10.1016/S0095-4470(03)00016-0.
47. Harrison P. Acquiring the phonology of lexical tone in infancy. Lingua 2000, 110:581-616. 10.1016/S0024-3841(00)00003-6.
48. Havy M., Nazzi T. Better processing of consonantal over vocalic information in word learning at 16 months of age. Infancy 2009, 14:439-456. 10.1080/15250000902996532.
49. Hohle B., Bijeljac-Babic R., Herold B., Weissenborn J., Nazzi T. Language specific prosodic preferences during the first half year of life: Evidence from German and French infants. Infant Behavior & Development 2009, 32:262-274. 10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.03.004.
50. Huang J., Holt L.L. General perceptual contributions to lexical tone normalization. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2009, 125:3983-3994. 10.1121/1.3125342.
51. Idemaru K., Guion S.G. Acoustic covariants of length contrast in Japanese stops. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 2008, 38:167-186.
52. Iverson P., Evans B.G. Learning English vowels with different first-language vowel systems: perception of formant targets, formant movement, and duration. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2007, 122:2842-2854. 10.1121/1.2783198.
53. Jusczyk P.W., Cutler A., Redanz N.J. Infantsr preference for the predominant stress patterns of English words. Child Development 1993, 64:675-687. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02935.x.
54. Kaan E., Barkley C., Bao M., Wayland R. Thai lexical tone perception in native speakers of Thai, English and Mandarin Chinese: An event-related potentials training study. BMC Neuroscience 2008, 9:53. 10.1186/1471-2202-9-53.
55. Kaan E., Wayland R., Bao M., Barkley C.M. Effects of native language and training on lexical tone perception: An event-related potential study. Brain Research 2007, 1148:113-122. 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.02.019.
56. Karzon R.G. Discrimination of polysyllabic sequences by one- to four-month-old infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1985, 39:326-342. 10.1016/0022-0965(85)90044-X.
57. Karzon R.G., Nicholas J.G. Syllabic pitch perception in 2- to 3-month-old infants. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 1989, 45:10-14.
58. Kawahara S. A faithfulness ranking projected from a perceptibility scale: The case of [+voice] in Japanese. Language 2006, 82:536-574.
59. Khouw E., Ciocca V. Perceptual correlates of Cantonese tones. Journal of Phonetics 2007, 35:104-117. 10.1016/j.wocn.2005.10.003.
60. Kuhl P.K. Human adults and human infants show a " perceptual magnet effect" for the prototypes of speech categories, monkeys do not. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 1991, 50:93-107.
61. Kuhl P.K., Stevens E., Hayashi A., Deguchi T., Kiritani S., Iverson P. Infants show a facilitation effect for native language phonetic perception between 6 and 12 months. Developmental Science 2006, 9:F13-F21.
62. Kuhl P.K., Williams K.A., Lacerda F., Stevens K.N., Lindblom B. Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age. Science 1992, 255:606-608.
63. Leather J. Speaker normalization in perception of lexical tone. Journal of Phonetics 1983, 11:373-382.
64. Lee Y.-S., Vakoch D.A., Wurm L.H. Tone perception in Cantonese and Mandarin: A cross-linguistic comparison. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 1996, 25:527-542. 10.1007/BF01758181.
65. Lisker L. " Voicing" in English: A catalogue of acoustic features signaling /b/ versus /p/ in trochees. Language and Speech 1986, 29:3-11. 10.1177/002383098602900102.
66. Lively S.E. Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/. II: The role of phonetic environment and talker variability in learning new perceptual categories. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1993, 94:1242-1255. 10.1121/1.408177.
67. Luo H., Ni J.-T., Li Z.-H., Li X.-O., Zhang D.-R., Zeng F.-G., et al. Opposite patterns of hemisphere dominance for early auditory processing of lexical tones and consonants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2006, 103:19558-19563. 10.1073/pnas.0607065104.
68. Mani N., Plunkett K. Phonological specificity of vowels and consonants in early lexical representations. Journal of Memory and Language 2007, 57:252-272. 10.1016/j.jml.2007.03.005.
69. Mattock K., Burnham D. Chinese and English infants r tone perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization. Infancy 2006, 10:241-265.
70. Mattock K., Molnar M., Polka L., Burnham D. The developmental course of lexical tone perception in the first year of life. Cognition 2008, 106:1367-1381.
71. McMurray B., Jongman A. What information is necessary for speech categorization? Harnessing variability in the speech signal by integrating cues computed relative to expectations. Psychological Review 2011, 118:219-246. 10.1037/a0022325.
72. Minagawa-Kawai Y., Cristia A., Dupoux E. Cerebral lateralization and early speech acquisition: A developmental scenario. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 2011, 1:217-232. 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.03.005.
73. Minagawa-Kawai Y., Mori K., Naoi N., Kojima S. Neural attunement processes in infants during the acquisition of a language-specific phonemic contrast. Journal of Neuroscience 2007, 27:315-321. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1984-06.2007.
74. Moore C.B., Jongman A. Speaker normalization in the perception of Mandarin Chinese tones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1997, 102:1864-1877. 10.1121/1.420092.
75. Mugitani R., Pons F., Fais L., Dietrich C., Werker J.F., Amano S. Perception of vowel length by Japanese- and English-learning infants. Developmental Psychology 2009, 45:236-247. 10.1037/a0014043.
76. Narayan C.R., Werker J.F., Beddor P.S. The interaction between acoustic salience and language experience in developmental speech perception: Evidence from nasal place discrimination. Developmental Science 2010, 13:407-420. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00898.x.
77. Nazzi T. Use of phonetic specificity during the acquisition of new words: Differences between consonants and vowels. Cognition 2005, 98:13-30. 10.1016/j.cognition.2004.10.005.
78. Nazzi T., Floccia C., Bertoncini J. Discrimination of pitch contours by neonates. Infant Behavior & Development 1998, 21:779-784. 10.1016/S0163-6383(98)90044-3.
79. Nazzi T., Ramus F. Perception and acquisition of linguistic rhythm by infants. Speech Communication 2003, 41:233-243. 10.1016/S0167-6393(02)00106-1.
80. Neary T.M. Phonetic feature systems for vowels systems 1978, Indiana University Linguistics Club, Bloomington, IN.
81. Nespor M., Peñea M., Mehler J. On the different roles of vowels and consonants in speech processing and language acquisition. Lingue e Linguaggio 2003, 2:203-230.
82. New B., Araújo V., Nazzi T. Differential processing of consonants and vowels in lexical access through reading. Psychological Science 2008, 19:1223-1227. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02228.x.
83. Oller D.K. The emergence of the sounds of speech in infancy. Production 1980, Vol. 1:92-112. Academic Press, New York. G.H. Yeni-Komishan, J.F. Kavanagh, C.A. Ferguson (Eds.).
84. Pallier C., Bosch L., Sebastián-Gallés N. A limit on behavioral plasticity in speech perception. Cognition 1997, 64:B9-B17. 10.1016/S0010-0277(97)00030-9.
85. Papoušek M., Bornstein M.H., Nuzzo C., Papoušek H., Symmes D. Infant responses to prototypical melodic contours in parental speech. Infant Behavior and Development 1990, 13:539-545.
86. Papoušek M., Hwang S.-F.C. Tone and intonation in Mandarin babytalk to presyllabic infants: Comparison with registers of adult conversation and foreign language instruction. Applied Psycholinguistics 1991, 12:481-504.
87. Papoušek M., Papoušek H., Symmes D. The meanings of melodies in motherese in tone and stress languages. Infant Behavior and Development 1991, 14:415-440.
88. Pegg J.E., Werker J.F. Adult and infant perception of two English phones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1997, 102:3742-3753.
89. Peng G., Zheng H.-Y., Gong T., Yang R.-X., Kong J.-P., Wang W.S.-Y. The influence of language experience on categorical perception of pitch contours. Journal of Phonetics 2010, 38:616-624. 10.1016/j.wocn.2010.09.003.
90. Pierrehumbert, J. B. (1980). The phonology and phonetics of English intonation. Doctoral dissertation. http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/16065.
91. Polka L., Bohn O.-S. A cross-language comparison of vowel perception in English-learning and German-learning infants. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1996, 100:577-592. 10.1121/1.415884.
92. Polka L., Bohn O.-S. Asymmetries in vowel perception. Speech Communication 2003, 41:221-231.
93. Polka L., Bohn O.-S. Natural Referent Vowel (NRV) framework: An emerging view of early phonetic development. Journal of Phonetics 2011, 39:467-478. 10.1016/j.wocn.2010.08.007.
94. Polka L., Colantonio C., Sundara M. A cross-language comparison of /d/-/{eth}/ perception: Evidence for a new developmental pattern. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2001, 109:2190. 10.1121/1.1362689.
95. Polka L., Werker J.F. Developmental changes in perception of nonnative vowel contrasts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1994, 20:421-435.
96. Pons F., Albareda-Castellot B., Sebastián-Gallés N. The interplay between input and initial biases: Asymmetries in vowel perception during the first year of life. Child Development 2012, 83:965-976. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01740.x.
97. Pons F., Bosch L. Stress pattern preference in Spanish-learning infants: The role of syllable weight. Infancy 2010, 15:223-245. 10.1111/j.1532-7078.2009.00016.x.
98. Pons F., Toro J.M. Structural generalizations over consonants and vowels in 11-month-old infants. Cognition 2010, 116:361-367. 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.05.013.
99. Price P., Ostendorf M., Shattuck-Hufnagel S., Fong C. The use of prosody in syntactic disambiguation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1991, 90:2956-2970.
100. Quam C., Swingley D. Phonological knowledge guides two-year-oldsr and adultsr interpretation of salient pitch contours in word learning. Journal of Memory and Language 2010, 62:135-150. 10.1016/j.jml.2009.09.003.
101. Quam C., Swingley D. Development in childrenrs interpretation of pitch cues to emotions. Child Development 2012, 83:236-250. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01700.x.
102. Repp B.H., Healy A.F., Crowder R.G. Categories and context in the perception of isolated steady-state vowels. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1979, 5:129-145.
103. Rivera-Gaxiola M., Silva-Pereyra J., Kuhl P.K. Brain potentials to native and non-native speech contrasts in 7- and 11-month-old American infants. Developmental Science 2005, 8:162-172. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00403.x.
104. Saffran, J. R., Werker, J. F., & Werner, L. A. (2006). The infantrs auditory world: Hearing, speech, and the beginnings of language. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) & R. Siegler & D. Kuhn (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2, Cognition, perception and language (6th ed., pp. 58-108). New York: Wiley.
105. Sato Y., Kato M., Mazuka R. Development of single/geminate obstruent discrimination by Japanese infants: Early integration of durational and nondurational cues. Developmental Psychology 2012, 48:18-34. 10.1037/a0025528.
106. Sato Y., Sogabe Y., Mazuka R. Developmen of hemispheric specialization for lexical pitch-accent in Japanese infants. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2009, 22:2503-2513.
107. Sato Y., Sogabe Y., Mazuka R. Discrimination of phonemic vowel length by Japanese infants. Developmental Psychology 2010, 46:106-119. 10.1037/a0016718.
108. Seaman M.A., Levin J.R., Serlin R.C. New developments in pairwise multiple comparisons: Some powerful and practicable procedures. Psychological Bulletin 1991, 110(3):577.
109. Singh L., Foong J. Influences of lexical tone and pitch on word recognition in bilingual infants. Cognition 2012, 124:128-142. 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.008.
110. Singh L., Morgan J.L., Best C.T. Infantsr listening preferences: Baby talk or happy talk?. Infancy 2002, 3:365. 10.1207/S15327078IN0303_5.
111. Singh L., Morgan J.L., White K.S. Preference and processing: The role of speech affect in early spoken word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language 2004, 51:173-189. 10.1016/j.jml.2004.04.004.
112. Singh L., White K.S., Morgan J.L. Building a word-form lexicon in the face of variable input: Influences of pitch and amplitude on early spoken word recognition. Language Learning and Development 2008, 4:157-178.
113. Skoruppa K., Cristia A., Peperkamp S., Seidl A. English-learning infantsr perception of word stress patterns. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2011, 130:EL50-EL55. 10.1121/1.3590169.
114. Skoruppa K., Pons F., Christophe A., Bosch L., Dupoux E., Sebastián-Gallés N., et al. Language-specific stress perception by 9-month-old French and Spanish infants. Developmental Science 2009, 12:914-919. 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00835.x.
115. Snedeker J., Trueswell J. Using prosody to avoid ambiguity: Effects of speaker awareness and referential context. Journal of Memory and Language 2002, 48:103-130.
116. So C.K., Best C.T. Cross-language perception of non-native tonal contrasts: Effects of native phonological and phonetic influences. Language and Speech 2010, 53:273-293. 10.1177/0023830909357156.
117. Spence M.J., Moore D.S. Categorization of infant-directed speech: Development from 4 to 6 months. Developmental Psychobiology 2003, 42:97-109. 10.1002/dev.10093.
118. Stager C.L., Werker J.F. Infants listen for more phonetic detail in speech perception than in word-learning tasks. Nature 1997, 388:381-382.
119. Stark R.E. Stages of speech development in the first year of life. Production 1980, Vol. 1:73-92. Academic Press, New York. G.H. Yeni-Komishan, J.F. Kavanagh, C.A. Ferguson (Eds.).
120. Stern D.N., Spieker S., MacKain K. Intonation contours as signals in maternal speech to prelinguistic infants. Developmental Psychology 1982, 18:727-735. 10.1037//0012-1649.18.5.727.
121. Sundara M., Polka L., Genesee F. Language-experience facilitates discrimination of /d-th/ in monolingual and bilingual acquisition of English. Cognition 2006, 100:369-388. 10.1016/j.cognition.2005.04.007.
122. Tardif T., Fletcher P., Zhang Z.X., Liang W.L. The Chinese communicative development inventory (Putonghua and Cantonese versions): Manual, forms, and norms 2008, Peking Uni., Beijing.
123. Tsao F.-M. The effect of acoustical similarity on lexical-tone perception of one-year-old Mandarin-learning infants. Chinese Journal of Psychology 2008, 50:111-124.
124. Tsao F.-M., Liu H.-M., Kuhl P.K. Perception of native and non-native affricate-fricative contrasts: Cross-language tests on adults and infants. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2006, 120:2285-2294. 10.1121/1.2338290.
125. Turk A.E., Jusczyk P.W., Gerken L. Do English-learning infants use syllable weight to determine stress?. Language and Speech 1995, 38:143-158. 10.1177/002383099503800202.
126. Vance T.J. An experimental investigation of tone and intonation in Cantonese. Phonetica 1976, 33:368-392.
127. Wang Y., Behne D.M., Jongman A., Sereno J.A. The role of linguistic experience in the hemispheric processing of lexical tone. Applied Psycholinguistics 2004, 25(3):449-466.
128. Wang Y., Spence M.M., Jongman A., Sereno J.A. Training American listeners to perceive Mandarin tones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1999, 106:3649-3658. 10.1121/1.428217.
129. Wayland R.P., Guion S.G. Training English and Chinese listeners to perceive Thai tones: A preliminary report. Language Learning 2004, 54:681-712. 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00283.x.
130. Welby P. Effects of pitch accent position, type, and status on focus projection. Language and Speech 2003, 46:53-81. 10.1177/00238309030460010401.
131. Werker J.F., Lalonde C.E. Cross-language speech perception: Initial capabilities and developmental change. Developmental Psychology 1988, 24:672-683.
132. Werker J.F., Tees R.C. Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development 1984, 7:49-63.
133. Werker J.F., Tees R.C. Phonemic and phonetic factors in adult cross-language speech perception. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1984, 75:1866-1878.
134. Werker J.F., Yeung H.H., Yoshida K.A. How do infants become experts at native-speech perception?. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2012, 21:221-226. 10.1177/0963721412449459.
135. Wong P.C.-M., Diehl R.L. Perceptual normalization for inter- and intra-talker variation in Cantonese level tones. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 2003, 46:413-421. 10.1044/1092-4388(2003/034.
136. Xi J., Zhang L., Shu H., Zhang Y., Li P. Categorical perception of lexical tones in Chinese revealed by mismatch negativity. Neuroscience 2010, 170:223-231. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.077.
137. Xu Y. Contextual tonal variations in Mandarin. Journal of Phonetics 1997, 25:61-83. 10.1006/jpho.1996.0034.
138. Xu Y. Effects of tone and focus on the formation and alignment of f0 contours. Journal of Phonetics 1999, 27:55-105. 10.1006/jpho.1999.0086.
139. Xu Y., Gandour J.T., Francis A.L. Effects of language experience and stimulus complexity on the categorical perception of pitch direction. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2006, 120:1063. 10.1121/1.2213572.
140. Yip M.J.W. Tone 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
141. Yip M.J.W. Tone in East Asian languages. The handbook of phonological theory 1995, 476-494. Blackwell, Cambridge, UK. J.H. Goldsmith (Ed.).