Cyclothymic disorder in youth: Why is it overlooked, what do we know and where is the field headed?

Neuropsychiatry

Volumn 2, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 509-519

  Van Meter, Anna R ^a   Youngstrom, Eric A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; CENTRAL STIMULANT AGENT; LITHIUM; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; VALPROIC ACID;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITIVE THERAPY; CYCLOTHYMIA; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISEASE COURSE; EPIGENETICS; HUMAN; LEARNING; MAJOR AFFECTIVE DISORDER; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PEDIATRICS; PERCEPTIVE THRESHOLD; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TEMPERAMENT;

EID: 84871344421     PISSN: 17582008     EISSN: 17582016     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/npy.12.64     Document Type: Review

References (93)

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Revised Edition). American Psychiatric Association, DC, USA (2001).
2. Akiskal H, Khani M, Scott-Strauss A. Cyclothymic temperamental disorders. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 2, 527-554 (1979).
3. Akiskal H, Akiskal K. Cyclothymic, hyperthymic, and depressive temperaments as subaffective variants of mood disorders. Am. Psych. Pr. Rev. Psych. 11, 43-62 (1992).
4. Vieta E, Reinares M, Rosa AR. Staging bipolar disorder. Neurotox. Res. 19(2), 279-285 (2011).
5. Brieger P, Marneros A. Dysthymia and cyclothymia: historical origins and contemporary development. J. Affect. Disord. 45(3), 117-126 (1997).
6. Youngstrom E. Definitional issues in bipolar disorder across the life cycle. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pr. 16(2), 140-160 (2009).
7. Lewinsohn P, Klein D, Seeley J. Bipolar disorders in a community sample of older adolescents: prevalence, phenomenology, comorbidity, and course. J. Am. Acad. Child Psy. 34(4), 454-463 (1995).
8. Akiskal H, Lancrenon S, Hantouche E. Validating the soft bipolar spectrum in the French National EPIDEP Study: the prominence of BP-II 1/2. J. Affect. Disord. 96(3), 207-213 (2006).
9. Hantouche E. Validating Cyclothymia as a Distinct Variant of Bipolarity. International Review of Bipolar Disorders, Lisbon, Portugal (2009).
10. Kessler R, Avenevoli S, Merikangas K. Mood disorders in children and adolescents: an epidemiologic perspective. Biol. Psychiatry 49(12), 1002-1014 (2001).
11. Youngstrom E, Birmaher B, Findling R. Pediatric bipolar disorder: validity, phenomenology, and recommendations for diagnosis. Bipolar Disord. 10, 194-214 (2008).
12. Van Meter A, Moreira A, Youngstrom E. Meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies of pediatric bipolar disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 72(9), 1250-1256 (2011).
13. Akiskal H, Bourgeois M, Angst J, Post R, Möller HJ, Hirschfeld R. Re-evaluating the prevalence of and diagnostic composition within the broad clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 59(Suppl. 1), S5-S30 (2000).
14. Angst J, Gamma A, Benazzi F, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rössler W. Toward a re-definition of subthreshold bipolarity: epidemiology and proposed criteria for bipolar-II, minor bipolar disorders and hypomania. J. Affect. Disord. 73(1-2), 133-146 (2003).
15. Judd L, Akiskal H. The prevalence and disability of bipolar spectrum disorders in the US population: re-analysis of the ECA database taking into account subthreshold cases. J. Affect. Disord. 73(1-2), 123-131 (2003).
16. Maughan B, Rutter M. Retrospective reporting of childhood adversity: issues in assessing long-term recall. J. Pers. Disord. 11(1), 19-33 (1997).
17. Perugi G. Cyclothymic temperament and/or borderline personality disorder. Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 9(Suppl. 1), S77 (2009).
18. Ruggero CJ, Zimmerman M, Chelminski I, Young D. Borderline personality disorder and the misdiagnosis of bipolar disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 44(6), 405-408 (2010).
19. Perugi G, Akiskal H. Are bipolar II, atypical depression, and borderline personality overlapping manifestations of a common cyclothymic-sensitive diathesis? World Psychiatry 10, 45-51 (2011).
20. Perugi G, Toni C, Travierso M, Akiskal H. The role of cyclothymia in atypical depression: toward a data-based reconceptualization of the borderline-bipolar II connection. J. Affect. Disord. 73(1-2), 87-98 (2003).
21. Kessler R, Avenevoli S, Green J, et al. National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A): III. Concordance of DSM-IV/CIDI diagnoses with clinical reassessments. J. Am. Acad. Child Psy. 48(4), 386-399 (2009).
22. Merikangas K, He J, Burstein M, et al. Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). J. Am. Acad. Child Psy. 49(10), 980-989 (2010).
23. Biederman J, Faraone S, Wozniak J, et al. Clinical correlates of bipolar disorder in a large, referred sample of children and adolescents. J. Psychiatr. Res. 39(6), 611-622 (2005).
24. Chang K, Steiner H, Ketter T. Psychiatric phenomenology of child and adolescent bipolar offspring. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 39(4), 453 (2000).
25. Faraone S, Biederman J, Wozniak J, Mundy E. Is comorbidity with ADHD a marker for juvenile-onset mania? J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 36(8), 1046-1055 (1997).
26. Reich W, Neuman R, Volk H, Joyner C, Todd R. Comorbidity between ADHD and symptoms of bipolar disorder in a community sample of children and adolescents. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 8, 459-466 (2005).
27. Sachs GS, Baldassano CF, Truman CJ, Guille C. Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with early- and lateonset bipolar disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 157(3), 466-468 (2000).
28. Robins E, Guze S. Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 126(7), 983-987 (1970).
29. Van Meter A, Youngstrom E, Youngstrom J, Feeny N, Findling R. Examining the validity of cyclothymic disorder in a youth sample. J. Affect. Disord. 132(1-2), 55-63 (2011).
30. Youngstrom E, Van Meter A. Validating Cyclothymic Disorder in Youth. International Review of Bipolar Disorders, Nice, France (2012).
31. Van Meter A, Youngstrom E, Demeter C, Findling R. Examining the validity of cyclothymic disorder in a youth sample: replication and extension. Presented at: 2011 Pediatric Bipolar Disorder Conference. MA, USA 24-25 March 2011.
32. Geller B, Zimmerman B, Williams M, DelBello M, Frazier J, Beringer L. Phenomenology of prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder: examples of elated mood, grandiose behaviors, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts and hypersexuality. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 12(1), 3-9 (2002).
33. Harvey A, Mullin B, Hinshaw S. Sleep and circadian rhythms in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. Dev. Psychopathol. 18(4), 1147-1168 (2006).
34. Edvardsen J, Torgersen S, Røysamb E, et al. Heritability of bipolar spectrum disorders. Unity or heterogeneity. J. Affect. Disord. 106(3), 229-240 (2008).
35. Howland R, Thase M. A comprehensive review of cyclothymic disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 181(8), 485-493 (1993).
36. Klein D, Depue R, Slater J. Inventory identification of cyclothymia: IX. Validation in offspring of bipolar I patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 43(5), 441-445 (1986).
37. Schraufnagel C, Brumback R, Harper C, Weinberg W. Affective illness in children and adolescents: patterns of presentation in relation to pubertal maturation and family history. J. Child Neurol. 16(8), 553-561 (2001).
38. Akiskal H, Djenderedjian A, Rosenthal R, Khani M. Cyclothymic disorder: validating criteria for inclusion in the bipolar affective group. Am. J. Psychiatry 134(11), 1227-1233 (1977).
39. Dunner DL, Russek FD, Russek B, Fieve RR. Classification of bipolar affective disorder subtypes. Compr. Psychiatry 23(2), 186-189 (1982).
40. Evans L, Akiskal H, Keck P, et al. Familiality of temperament in bipolar disorder: support for a genetic spectrum. J. Affect. Disord. 85(1-2), 153-168 (2005).
41. Gonda X, Rihmer Z, Zsombok T, Bagdy G, Akiskal KK, Akiskal HS. The 5HTTLPR polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene is associated with affective temperaments as measured by TEMPS-A. J. Affect. Disord. 91(2-3), 125-131 (2006).
42. Evans LM, Akiskal HS, Greenwood TA, et al. Suggestive linkage of a chromosomal locus on 18p11 to cyclothymic temperament in bipolar disorder families. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 147B(3), 326-332 (2008).
43. Vázquez GH, Kahn C, Schiavo CE M, et al. Bipolar disorders and affective temperaments: a national family study testing the " endophenotype" and "subaffective" theses using the TEMPS-A Buenos Aires. J. Affect. Disord. 108(1-2), 25-32 (2008).
44. Kochman F, Hantouche E, Ferrari P, Lancrenon S, Bayart D, Akiskal H. Cyclothymic temperament as a prospective predictor of bipolarity and suicidality in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 85(1-2), 181-189 (2005).
45. Biederman J, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens T, Faraone S. Therapeutic dilemmas in the pharmacotherapy of bipolar. Depression in the young. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 10(3), 185-192 (2000).
46. Chang K, Saxena K, Howe M. An open-label study of lamotrigine adjunct or monotherapy for the treatment of adolescents with bipolar depression. J. Am. Acad. Child Psy. 45(3), 298-304 (2005).
47. Faraone S, Glatt S, Tsuang M. The genetics of pediatric-onset bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 53(11), 970-977 (2003).
48. Findling R, Youngstrom E, McNamara N, et al. Early symptoms of mania and the role of parental risk. Bipolar Disord. 7(6), 623-634 (2005).
49. Lish J, Dime-Meenan S, Whybrow P, Price R, Hirschfeld R. The National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association (DMDA) survey of bipolar members. J. Affect. Disord. 31(4), 281-294 (1994).
50. James A. Early-Onset Bipolar Disorder. Child Psychology and Psychiatry. John Wiley and Sons, NJ, USA, 210-216 (2011).
51. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Goldstein B, et al. Four-year longitudinal course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders: the course and outcome of bipolar youth (COBY) study. Am. J. Psychiatry 166(7), 795-804 (2009).
52. Freeman A, Youngstrom E, Michalak E, Siegel R, Meyers O, Findling R. Quality of life in pediatric bipolar disorder. Pediatrics 123(3), e446-e452 (2009).
53. Romero S, Birmaher B, Axelson D, et al. Prevalence and correlates of physical and sexual abuse in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 112(1-3), 144-150 (2009).
54. Molnar BE, Buka SL, Kessler RC. Child sexual abuse and subsequent psychopathology: results from the national comorbidity survey. Am. J. Public Health 91(5), 753-760 (2001).
55. Putnam FW. Ten-year research update review: child sexual abuse. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 42(3), 269-278 (2003).
56. Silverman AB, Reinherz HZ, Giaconia RM. The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: a longitudinal community study. Child Abuse Negl. 20(8), 709-723 (1996).
57. Leone PE, Christle CA, Nelson MC, Skib R, Frey AJ, Jolivette K. School Failure, Race, and Disability: Promoting Positive Outcomes, Decreasing Vulnerability for Involvement with the Juvenile Delinquency System. National Center on Education, Disability and Juvenile Justice, MD, USA (2003).
58. Angold A, Messer SC, Stangl D, Farmer EM, Costello EJ, Burns BJ. Perceived parental burden and service use for child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. Am. J. Public Health 88(1), 75-80 (1998).
59. Appleyard K, Egeland B, van Dulmen MHM, Alan Sroufe L. When more is not better: the role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. J. Child Psychol. Psyc. 46(3), 235-245 (2005).
60. Baldessarini R, Tondo L. Suicide risk and treatments for patients with bipolar disorder. JAMA 290(11), 1517-1519 (2003).
61. The Global Burden Of Disease: 2004 Update. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2008).
62. Beautrais AL. Suicide and serious suicide attempts in youth: a multiple-group comparison study. Am. J. Psychiatry 160(6), 1093-1099 (2003).
63. Baldessarini R, Pompili M, Tondo L. Suicide in bipolar disorder: risks and management. CNS Spectr. 11(6), 465 (2006).
64. Bostwick JM, Pankratz VS. Affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination. Am. J. Psychiatry 157(12), 1925-1932 (2000).
65. Brent D, Perper J, Goldstein C, et al. Risk factors for adolescent suicide. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 45, 581-588 (1988).
66. Goldstein T, Birmaher B, Axelson D, et al. History of suicide attempts in pediatric bipolar disorder: factors associated with increased risk. Bipolar Disord. 7(6), 525-535 (2005).
67. Angst J, Cui L, Swendsen J, et al. Major depressive disorder with subthreshold bipolarity in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Am. J. Psychiatry 167(10), 1194-1201 (2010).
68. Akiskal H, Akiskal K, Lancrenon S, et al. Validating the bipolar spectrum in the French National EPIDEP Study: overview of the phenomenology and relative prevalence of its clinical prototypes. J. Affect. Disord. 96(3), 197-205 (2006).
69. Alloy L, Uroševic S, Abramson L, et al. Progression along the bipolar spectrum: a longitudinal study of predictors of conversion from bipolar spectrum conditions to bipolar I and II disorders. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 121(1), 16-27 (2011).
70. Howes OD, Lim S, Theologos G, Yung AR, Goodwin GM, McGuire P. A comprehensive review and model of putative prodromal features of bipolar affective disorder. Psychol. Med. 41(8), 1567-1577 (2010).
71. Lewinsohn P, Klein D, Seeley J. Bipolar disorder during adolescence and young adulthood in a community sample. Bipolar Disord. 2, 281-293 (2000).
72. Akiskal H, Downs J, Jordan P, Watson S, Daugherty D, Pruitt D. Affective disorders in referred children and younger siblings of manic-depressives: mode of onset and prospective course. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 42(10), 996-1003 (1985).
73. Hauser M, Pfennig A, Özgürdal S, Heinz A, Bauer M, Juckel G. Early recognition of bipolar disorder. Eur. Psychiatry 22(2), 92-98 (2007).
74. Cicero D, Epler A, Sher K. Are there developmentally limited forms of bipolar disorder? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118(3), 431-447 (2009).
75. Paykel E, Abbott R, Morriss R, Hayhurst H, Scott J. Sub-syndromal and syndromal symptoms in the longitudinal course of bipolar disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 189(2), 118-123 (2006).
76. Welner A, Welner Z, Leonard MA. Bipolar manic-depressive disorder: a reassessment of course and outcome. Compr. Psychiatry 18(4), 327-332 (1977).
77. Koukopoulos A, Sani G, Koukopoulos AE, et al. Duration and stability of the rapid-cycling course: a long-term personal follow-up of 109 patients. J. Affect. Disord. 73(1-2), 75-85 (2003).
78. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Strober M, et al. Clinical course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63(2), 175-183 (2006).
79. McElroy S, Strakowski S, West S, Keck P Jr, McConville B. Phenomenology of adolescent and adult mania in hospitalized patients with bipolar disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 154(1), 44-49 (1997).
80. Baldessarini RJ, Vazquez G, Tondo L. Treatment of cyclothymic disorder: commentary. Psychother. Psychosom. 80, 131-135 (2011).
81. Miklowitz D. Psychotherapy in combination with drug treatment for bipolar disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16(2 Suppl. 1), 56S (1996).
82. Miklowitz DJ, Otto MW, Frank E, et al. Psychosocial treatments for bipolar depression: a 1-year randomized trial from the systematic treatment enhancement program. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64(4), 419-426 (2007).
83. Totterdell P, Kellett S. Restructuring mood in cyclothymia using cognitive behavior therapy: an intensive time-sampling study. J. Clin. Psychol. 64(4), 501-518 (2008).
84. Fava GA, Rafanelli C, Tomba E, Guidi J, Grandi S. The sequential combination of cognitive behavioral treatment and well-being therapy in cyclothymic disorder. Psychother. Psychosom. 80(3), 136-143 (2011).
85. Goodwin G. Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised second edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J. Psycholpharmacol. 23(4), 346-388 (2009).
86. Kowatch R, Fristad M, Birmaher B, Wagner K, Findling R, Hellander M. Treatment guidelines for children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 44(3), 213-235 (2005).
87. Findling R, Frazier T, Youngstrom E, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of divalproex monotherapy in the treatment of symptomatic youth at high risk for developing bipolar disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 68(5), 781-788 (2007).
88. Deltito J. The effect of valproate on bipolar spectrum temperamental disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry 54(8), 300-304 (1993).
89. Axelson DA, Birmaher B, Findling RL, et al. Concerns regarding the inclusion of temper dysregulation disorder with dysphoria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. J. Clin. Psychiatry 72(9), 1257-1262 (2011).
90. DelBello M, Geller B. Review of studies of child and adolescent offspring of bipolar parents. Bipolar Disord. 3(6), 325-334 (2001).
91. Miklowitz D, Chang K. Prevention of bipolar disorder in at-risk children: theoretical assumptions and empirical foundations. Dev. Psychopathol. 20(3), 881-897 (2008).
92. Shankman S, Lewinsohn P, Klein D, Small J, Seeley J, Altman S. Subthreshold conditions as precursors for full syndrome disorders: a 15year longitudinal study of multiple diagnostic classes. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 50(12), 1485-1494 (2009).
93. American Psychiatric Association. D 00 Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. www.dsm5.org/proposedrevision/pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=397 (Accessed 19 June 2012)