Incremental evolution of the neural crest, neural crest cells and neural crest-derived skeletal tissues

Journal of Anatomy

Volumn 222, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 19-31

  Hall, Brian K ^a   Gillis, J Andrew ^a,b  

^a DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ascidians; Cartilage; Cephalochordates; Chondrogenesis; Dentine; Developmental origins; Evolutionary origins; Gene co option; Gene regulatory networks; Innovation; Neural crest; Neural crest cells; Odontogenesis; Skeleton; Vertebrates

Indexed keywords

BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PAX3; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PAX7; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR SOX9; UVOMORULIN;

ADIPOCYTE; BLASTOMA; CARTILAGE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FATE; CELL MIGRATION; CEPHALOCHORDATA; CHONDROGENESIS; CIONA INTESTINALIS; ECTODERM; EMBRYO CELL; EPIDERMIS; EPITHELIAL MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GENE REGULATORY NETWORK; MESENCHYME CELL; MESODERM; NEURAL CREST; NEURAL CREST CELL; NONHUMAN; ODONTOBLAST; OSTEOBLAST; PHARYNX; PHYLOGENY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; THYROID GLAND; UPREGULATION; UROCHORDATA;

ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; BONE AND BONES; CARTILAGE; CHONDROCYTES; CHORDATA; DENTIN; GENETIC MARKERS; NEURAL CREST; ODONTOBLASTS; UROCHORDATA;

ASCIDIA; ASCIDIACEA; BRANCHIOSTOMA LANCEOLATUM; CHORDATA; GASTROPODA; INVERTEBRATA; METAZOA; PROTOSTOMIA; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 84871220700     PISSN: 00218782     EISSN: 14697580     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01495.x     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Allard B, Magliore H, Couble ML, etal. (2006) Voltage gated sodium channels confer excitability to human odontoblasts: possible role in tooth pain transmission. J Biol Chem281, 29002-29010.
2. Aoki Y, Saint-Germain N, Gyda M, etal. (2003) Sox10 regulates the development of neural crest-derived melanocytes in Xenopus. Dev Biol259, 19-33.
3. Arduini B, Bosse KM, Henion PD (2009) Genetic ablation of neural crest cell diversification. Development136, 1987-1994.
4. Aruga J, Tohmonda T, Homma S, etal. (2002) Zic1 promotes the expansion of dorsal neural progenitors in spinal cord by inhibiting neuronal differentiation. Dev Biol244, 329-341.
5. Aybar MJ, Nieto MA, Mayor R (2003) Snail precedes slug in the genetic cascade required for the specification and migration of the Xenopus neural crest. Development130, 483-494.
6. Baker CVH (2008) The evolution and elaboration of vertebrate neural crest cells. Curr Opin Genet Dev18, 536-543.
7. Baker CVH, Bronner-Fraser M (1997) The origins of the neural crest. Part II: an evolutionary perspective. Mech Dev69, 13-29.
8. de Beer GR (1937) The Vertebrate Skull. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Reprinted 1985, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.)
9. de Beer GR (1947) The differentiation of neural crest cells into visceral cartilages and odontoblasts in Amblystoma, and a re-examination of the germ-layer theory. Proc R Soc Lond B134, 377-398.
10. Betancur P, Bronner-Fraser M, Sauka-Spengler T (2010) Assembling neural crest regulatory circuits into a gene regulatory network. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol26, 581-603.
11. Bishop CD, Hall BK, Bates WR (2010) Heat shock protein 90 expression in two migratory cell types of ascidian embryos and larvae: test cells deposit HSP90 on the larval tunic. Int J Dev Biol54, 1337-1346.
12. Bone Q (1960) The central nervous system in amphioxus. J Comp Neurol115, 27-51.
13. Bourlat SJ, Juliusdottir T, Lowe CJ, etal. (2006) Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida. Nature444, 85-88.
14. Bowler PJ (1996) Life's Splendid Dream. Evolutionary Biology and the Reconstruction of Life's Ancestry. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
15. Brewster R, Lee J, Ruiz i Altaba A (1998) Gli/Zic factors pattern the neural plate by defining domains of cell differentiation. Nature393, 579-583.
16. Butler WT, Ritchie HH (1995) The nature and functional significance of dentin extracellular matrix proteins. Int J Dev Biol39, 169-179.
17. Cameron TL, Belluoccio D, Farlie PG, etal. (2009) Global comparative transcriptome analysis of cartilage formation in vivo. BMC Dev Biol9, 20. doi:10.1186/1471-213X-9-20.
18. Cano A, Perez-Moreno MA, Rodrigo I, etal. (2000) The transcription factor Snail controls epithelial-mesenchymal transitions by repressing E-cadherin expression. Nat Cell Biol2, 76-83.
19. Cole AG (2011) A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. Eur Cells Mater21, 122-129.
20. Cole AG, Hall BK (2004a) Cartilage is a metazoan tissue; integrating data from non-vertebrate sources. Acta Zool (Stockh)85, 69-80.
21. Cole AG, Hall BK (2004b) The nature and significance of invertebrate cartilages revisited: distribution and histology of cartilage and cartilage-like tissues within the Metazoa. Zoology107, 261-274.
22. Cole AG, Hall BK (2009) Cartilage differentiation in cephalopod molluscs. Zoology112, 2-15.
23. Coles JA, Abbott NJ (1996) Signalling from neurones to glial cells in invertebrates. Trends Neurosci19, 358-362.
24. Corbo JC, Erives A, Di Gregorio A, etal. (1997) Dorsoventral patterning of the vertebrate neural tube is conserved in a protochordate. Development124, 2335-2344.
25. Dehal P, Satou Y, Campbell RK, etal. (2002) The draft genome of Ciona intestinalis: insights into chordate and vertebrate origins. Science298, 2157-2167.
26. Delsuc F, Brinkmann H, Chourrout D, etal. (2006) Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates. Nature439, 965-968.
27. Donoghue PCJ (2002) Evolution of development of the vertebrate dermal and oral skeletons: unraveling concepts, regulatory theories, and homologies. Paleobiology28, 474-507.
28. Donoghue PCJ, Sansom IJ, Downs JP (2006) Early evolution of vertebrate skeletal tissues and cellular interactions, and the canalization of skeletal development. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol306B, 278-294.
29. Donoghue PCJ, Graham A, Kelsh RN (2008) The origin and evolution of the neural crest. BioEssays30, 530-541.
30. Dunn CW, Hejnol A, Matus DQ, etal. (2010) Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life. Nature452, 745-749.
31. Erives A, Corbo JC, Levine M (1998) Lineage-specific regulation of the Ciona snail gene in the embryonic mesoderm and neurectoderm. Dev Biol194, 213-225.
32. Fedonkin MA, Gehling JG, Grey K, etal. (2007) The Rise of Animals: Evolution and Diversification of the Kingdom Animalia. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
33. Franz-Odendaal TA, Witten PE, Hall BK (2006) Buried alive: how osteoblasts become osteocytes. Dev Dyn235, 176-190.
34. Fraser GJ, Graham A, Smith MM (2004) Conserved deployment of genes during odontogenesis across osteichthyans. Proc R Soc Lond B271, 2311-2317.
35. Gans C (1987) The neural crest: a spectacular invention. In: Developmental and Evolutionary Aspects of the Neural Crest (ed. Maderson PFA), pp. 361-379. New York: John Wiley.
36. Gans C (1989) Stages in the origin of vertebrates: analysis by means of scenarios. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc64, 221-268.
37. Gans C (1993) Evolutionary origins of the vertebrate skull. In: The Vertebrate Skull vol. II. Patterns of Structural and Systematic Diversity (eds Hanken J, Hall BK), pp. 1-35. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
38. Gans C, Northcutt RG (1983) Neural crest and the origin of vertebrates. A new head. Science220, 268-274.
39. Gans C, Northcutt RG (1985) Neural crest: the implications for comparative anatomy. Fortschr Zool30, 507-514.
40. Gibson AW, Burke RD (1985) The origin of pigment cells in the embryos of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Dev Biol107, 414-419.
41. Gillis JA, Fritzenwanker JH, Lowe CJ (2012) A stem-deuterostome origin of the vertebrate pharyngeal transcriptional network. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci279, 237-246.
42. Gostling NJ, Shimeld SM (2003) Protochordate Zic genes define primitive somite compartments and highlight molecular changes underlying neural crest evolution. Evol Dev5, 136-144.
43. Hall BK (ed.) (1994) Homology: The Hierarchical Basis of Comparative Biology. Boca Raton: Academic Press.
44. Hall BK (1997) Germ layers and the germ-layer theory revisited: primary and secondary germ layers, neural crest as a fourth germ layer, homology, demise of the germ-layer theory. Evol Biol30, 121-186.
45. Hall BK (1999) The Neural Crest in Development and Evolution. New York: Springer.
46. Hall BK (2000a) The neural crest as a fourth germ layer and vertebrates as quadroblastic not triploblastic. Evol Dev2, 3-5.
47. Hall BK (2000b) The evolution of the neural crest in vertebrates. In: Regulatory Processes in Development: the Legacy of Sven Hörstadius Wenner-Gren International Series Volume 76 (eds Jacobson C-O, Olsson L, Laurent T), pp. 101-113. London: The Portland Press.
48. Hall BK (2005a) Betrayed by Balanoglossus: William Bateson's rejection of evolutionary embryology as the basis for understanding evolution. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol304B, 1-17.
49. Hall BK (2005b) Consideration of the neural crest and its skeletal derivatives in the context of novelty/innovations. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol304B, 548-557.
50. Hall BK (2005c) Bone and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology. London: Elsevier Academic Press.
51. Hall BK (2008a) Vertebrate origins: riding the crest of a new wave, or the wave of a new crest?Evol Dev10, 261-263.
52. Hall BK (2008b) Evolutionary origins of the neural crest and neural crest cells. Evol Biol35, 248-266.
53. Hall BK (2008c) The neural crest and neural crest cells: discovery and significance for theories of embryonic organization. J Biosci34, 781-793.
54. Hall BK (2009) The Neural Crest and Neural Crest Cells in Vertebrate Development and Evolution. New York: Springer.
55. Hall BK, Kerney R (in press) Levels of Biological Organization and the Origin of Novelty. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol, in press.
56. Hall BK, Miyake T (2000) All for one and one for all: condensations and the initiation of skeletal development. BioEssays22, 138-147.
57. Hanken J, Hall BK (eds) (1993) The Vertebrate Skull, Volume I-3. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
58. Hirano T, Nishida H (1997) Developmental fates of larval tissues after metamorphosis in ascidian Halocynthia roretzi. I. Origin of mesodermal tissues of the juvenile. Dev Biol192, 199-210.
59. Holland PWH (2000) Embryonic development of heads, skeletons and amphioxus: Edwin S. Goodrich revisited. Int J Dev Biol44, 29-34.
60. Holland PWH, Chen J (2001) Origin and early evolution of the vertebrates: new insights from advances in molecular biology, anatomy, and paleontology. BioEssays23, 142-151.
61. Holland PWH, Graham A (1995) Evolution of regional identity in the vertebrate nervous system. Perspect Dev Neurobiol3, 17-27.
62. Holland LZ, Holland ND (2001) Evolution of neural crest and placodes: amphioxus as a model for the ancestral vertebrate?J Anat199, 85-98.
63. Holland LZ, Holland ND (2007) A revised fate map for amphioxus and the evolution of axial patterning in chordates. Integr Comp Biol47, 360-372.
64. Holland LZ, Schubert M, Kozmik Z, etal. (1999) AmphiPax3/7, an amphioxus paired box gene: insights into chordate myogenesis, neurogenesis, and the possible evolutionary precursor of definitive vertebrate neural crest. Evol Dev1, 153-165.
65. Holley JA, Yu RK (1987) Localization of glycoconjugates recognized by the HNK-1 antibody in mouse and chick embryos during early neural development. Dev Neurosci9, 105-119.
66. Hong C-S, Saint-Jeannet J-P (2007) The activity of Pax3 and Zic3 regulates three distinct cell fates at the neural plate border. Mol Biol Cell18, 2192-2202.
67. Honore SM, Aybar MJ, Mayor R (2003) Sox10 is required for the early development of the prospective neural crest in Xenopus embryos. Dev Biol260, 79-96.
68. Imai KS, Hino K, Yagi K, etal. (2004) Gene expression profiles of transcription factors and signaling molecules in the ascidian embryo: towards a comprehensive understanding of gene networks. Development131, 4047-4058.
69. Janvier P (2007) Homologies and evolutionary transitions in early vertebrate history. In: Major Transitions in Vertebrate Evolution (eds Anderson JS, Sues H-D), pp. 57-121. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
70. Jeffery WR (1997) Evolution of ascidian development. Bioscience47, 417-425.
71. Jeffery WR (2006) Ascidian neural crest-like cells: phylogenetic distribution, relationship to larval complexity, and pigment cell fate. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol306B, 470-480.
72. Jeffery WR (2007) Chordate ancestry of the neural crest: new insights from ascidians. Semin Dev Biol18, 481-491.
73. Jeffery WR, Strickler AG, Yamamoto Y (2004) Migratory neural crest-like cells form body pigmentation in a urochordate embryo. Nature431, 696-699.
74. Jeffery WR, Chiba T, Krajka FR, etal. (2008) Trunk lateral cells are neural crest-like in the ascidian Ciona intestinalis; insights into the ancestry and evolution of the neural crest. Dev Biol324, 152-160.
75. Kawasaki K, Suzuki T, Weiss KM (2004) Genetic basis for the evolution of vertebrate mineralized tissue. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA101, 11356-11361.
76. Kawasaki K, Suzuki T, Weiss KM (2005) Phylogenetic drift in evolution: the changing genetic basis of vertebrate teeth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA102, 18063-18068.
77. Kowalevsky AO (1866) Anatomie des Balanoglossus. Mém Acad Sci St Petersburg, 7, 1-10.
78. Kowalevsky AO (1867) Entwickelungsgeschichte des Amphioxus lanceolatus. Mém Acad Sci St Petersburg11, 1-17.
79. Kowalevsky AO (1871) Weitere Studien über die Entwicklung der einfachen Ascidien. Arch Mikrosk Anat7, 101-130.
80. Kowalevsky AO (1877) Weitere Studien über die Entwickelungsgeschichte des Amphioxus lanceolatus. Arch Mikrosk Anat13, 181-204.
81. Kruzynska-Frejtag A, Wang J, Maeda M, etal. (2004) Periostin is expressed within the developing teeth at the sites of epithelial-mesenchymal interaction. Dev Dyn229, 857-868.
82. Kumano G, Nishida H (2007) Ascidian embryonic development: an emerging model system for the study of cell fate specification in chordates. Dev Dyn236, 1732-1747.
83. Kuratani S, Horigome N (2000) Developmental morphology of branchiomeric nerves in a cat shark, Scyliorhinus torazame, with special reference to rhombomeres, cephalic mesoderm, and distribution patterns of cephalic crest cells. Zool Sci17, 893-909.
84. Langeland JA, Tomsa JM, Jackman WR Jr, etal. (1998) An amphioxus snail gene: expression in paraxial mesoderm and neural plate suggests a conserved role in patterning the chordate embryo. Dev Genes Evol208, 569-577.
85. Le Douarin NM, Kalcheim C (1999) The Neural Crest, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
86. Le Douarin NM, Creuzet S, Couly G, etal. (2004) Neural crest cell plasticity and its limits. Development131, 4637-4650.
87. Liem KF, Tremml G, Roelink H, etal. (1995) Dorsal differentiation of neural plate cells induced by BMP-mediated signals from epidermal ectoderm. Cell82, 969-979.
88. Long JA, Hall BK, McNamara KJ, etal. (2011) The phylogenetic origin of jaws in vertebrates: developmental plasticity and heterochrony. Kirtlandia57, 46-52.
89. Lu Y, Xie Y, Zhang S, etal. (2001) DMP1-targeted Cre expression in odontoblasts and osteocytes. J Dent Res86, 320-325.
90. Maderson PFA (ed.) (1987) Developmental and Evolutionary Aspects of the Neural Crest. New York: John Wiley.
91. Magloire H, Couble M-L, Thivichon-Prince B, etal. (2009) Odontoblast: a mechano-sensory cell. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol312B, 416-424.
92. Maisey JG (1986) Heads and tails: a chordate phylogeny. Cladistics2, 201-256.
93. Mallatt J, Chen J-Y (2003) Fossil sister group of craniates: predicted and found. J Morphol258, 1-31.
94. Manni L, Lane NJ, Joly J-S, etal. (2004) Neurogenic and non-neurogenic placodes in ascidians. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol302B, 483-504.
95. Marchant L, Linker C, Ruiz P, etal. (1998) The inductive properties of mesoderm suggest that the neural crest cells are specified by a BMP gradient. Dev Biol198, 319-329.
96. Martinez-Morales J-R, Henrich T, Ramialison M, etal. (2007) New genes in the evolution of the neural crest differentiation program. Genome Biol8, R36.1-R36.17.
97. Mazet F, Hutt JA, Millard J, etal. (2003) Pax gene expression in the developing central nervous system of Ciona intestinalis. Gene Expr Patterns3, 743-745.
98. Meinertzhagen IA, Okamura Y (2001) The larval ascidian nervous system: the chordate brain from its small beginnings. Trends Neurosci24, 401-410.
99. Meulemans D, Bronner-Fraser M (2004) Gene-regulatory interactions in neural crest evolution and development. Dev Cell7, 291-299.
100. Meulemans D, Bronner-Fraser M (2007) Insights from amphioxus into the evolution of vertebrate cartilage. PLoS ONE2(8), e787.
101. Mikhailov AT, Gilbert SF (2002) From development to evolution: the re-establishment of the "Alexander Kowalevsky Medal". Int J Dev Biol46, 693-698.
102. Miyake T, Vaglia JL, Taylor LH, etal. (1999) Development of dermal denticles in skates (Chondrichthyes, Batoidea): patterning and cellular differentiation. J Morphol241, 61-81.
103. Mizuseki K, Kishi M, Matsui M, etal. (1998) Xenopus Zic-related-1 and Sox-2, two factors induced by chordin, have distinct activities in the initiation of neural induction. Development125, 579-587.
104. Nakagawa S, Takeichi M (1998) Neural crest emigration from the neural tube depends on regulated cadherin expression. Development125, 2963-2971.
105. Nakata K, Nagai T, Aruga J, etal. (1997) Xenopus Zic3, a primary regulator both in neural and neural crest development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA94, 11980-11985.
106. Nakata K, Koyabu Y, Aruga J, etal. (2000) A novel member of the Xenopus Zic family, Zic5, mediates neural crest development. Mech Dev99, 83-91.
107. Ng LJ, Wheatley S, Muscat GE, etal. (1997) SOX9 binds DNA, activates transcription, and coexpresses with type II collagen during chondrogenesis in the mouse. Dev Biol183, 108-121.
108. Nicol D, Meinertzhagen IA (1991) Cell counts and maps in the larval central nervous system of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis (L.). J Comp Neurol309, 415-429.
109. Northcutt RG (1996) The origin of craniates - neural crest, neurogenic placodes, and homeobox genes. Isr J Zool42, S273-S313.
110. Northcutt RG, Gans C (1983) The genesis of neural crest and epidermal placodes: a reinterpretation of vertebrate origins. Q Rev Biol58, 1-28.
111. Okumura R, Shima K, Muramatsu T, etal. (2005) The odontoblast is a sensory receptive cell? The expression of TRPV1 (VR-1) channels. Arch Histol Cytol68, 251-257.
112. Pääkkönen V, Vuoristo JT, Salo T, etal. (2007) Comparative gene expression profile analysis between native human odontoblasts and pulp tissue. Int Endod J41, 117-127.
113. Peters A (1963) The structure of the dorsal root nerves of amphioxus. An electron microscope study. J Comp Neurol121, 287-295.
114. Philippe H, Brinkmann H, Copley RR, etal. (2011) Acoelomorph flatworms are deuterostomes related to Xenoturbella. Nature470, 255-258.
115. Putnam NH, Butts T, Ferrier DE, etal. (2008) The amphioxus genome and the evolution of the chordate karyotype. Nature453, 1064-1071.
116. Rychel AL, Swalla BJ (2007) Development and evolution of chordate cartilage. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol308B, 325-335.
117. Rychel AL, Smith SE, Shimamoto HT, etal. (2006) Evolution and development of the chordates: collagen and pharyngeal cartilage. Mol Biol Evol23, 541-549.
118. Sasai N, Mizuseki K, Sasai Y (2001) Requirement of FoxD3-class signaling for neural crest determination in Xenopus. Development, 128, 2525-2536.
119. Satoh N (1994) Developmental Biology of Ascidians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
120. Satoh N (1999) Cell fate determination in the ascidian embryo. In: Cell Lineage and Fate Determination (ed. Moody SA), pp. 59-74. London: Academic Press.
121. Satoh N (2007) Toward a new paradigm for studying ascidian developmental dynamics. Dev Dyn236, 1695-1697.
122. Satoh N (2008) An aboral-dorsalization hypothesis for chordate origin. Genesis46, 614-622.
123. Satoh N (2009) An advanced filter-feeder hypothesis for urochordate evolution. Zool Sci26, 97111.
124. Sauka-Spengler T, Bronner-Fraser M (2008a) A gene regulatory network orchestrates neural crest formation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol9, 557-568.
125. Sauka-Spengler T, Bronner-Fraser M (2008b) Evolution of the neural crest viewed from a gene regulatory perspective. Genesis46, 673-682.
126. Sauka-Spengler T, Bronner-Fraser M (2008c) Insights from a sea lamprey into the evolution of neural crest gene regulatory network. Biol Bull214, 303-314.
127. Sauka-Spengler T, Meulemans D, Jones M, etal. (2007) Ancient evolutionary origin of the neural crest gene regulatory network. Dev Cell13, 405-420.
128. Schlosser G (2006) Induction and specification of cranial placodes. Dev Biol294, 303-351.
129. Schlosser G (2010) Making senses: development of vertebrate cranial placodes. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol283C, 129-234.
130. Sharman AC, Shimeld SM, Holland PWH (1999) An amphioxus Msx gene expressed predominantly in the dorsal neural tube. Dev Genes Evol209, 260-263.
131. Shu D-G, Conway Morris S, Zhang X-L (1996) A Pikaia-like chordate from the Lower Cambrian of China. Nature384, 157-158.
132. Sire J-V, Donoghue PCJ, Vickaryous MK (2009) Origin and evolution of the integumentary skeleton in non-tetrapod vertebrates. J Anat214, 409-440.
133. Smith MM, Hall BK (1990) Developmental and evolutionary origins of vertebrate skeletogenic and odontogenic tissues. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc65, 277-374.
134. Smith MM, Hall BK (1993) A developmental model for evolution of the vertebrate exoskeleton and teeth: the role of cranial and trunk neural crest. Evol Biol27, 387-448.
135. Stone JR, Hall BK (2004) Latent homologues for the neural crest as an evolutionary novelty. Evol Dev6, 123-129.
136. Suzuki A, Ueno N, Hemmati-Brivanlou A (1997) Xenopus msx1 mediates epidermal induction and neural inhibition by BMP4. Development124, 3037-3044.
137. Takahashi H, Satoh N (2001) Trunk lateral cell-specific genes of the ascidian Halocynthia roretzi. Zool Sci18, 361-366.
138. Tokuoka M, Imai KS, Satou Y, etal. (2004) Three distinct lineages of mesenchyme cells in Ciona intestinalis embryos demonstrated by specific gene expression. Dev Biol274, 211-224.
139. Vickaryous M, Hall BK (2006) Human cell type diversity, evolution development classification with special reference to cells derived from the neural crest. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc81, 425-455.
140. Wada H, Holland PW, Satoh N (1996) Origin of patterning in neural tubes. Nature384, 123.
141. Wada H, Saiga H, Satoh N, etal. (1998) Tripartite organization of the ancestral chordate brain and the antiquity of placodes: insights from ascidian Pax-2/5/8, Hox and Otx genes. Development125, 1113-1122.
142. Wang W-D, Melville DB, Montero-Balaguer M, etal. (2011) Tfap2a and Foxd3 regulate early steps in the development of the neural crest progenitor population. Dev Biol360, 173-185.
143. Whittaker JR (1987) Cell lineages and determinants of cell fate in development. Am Zool27, 607-622.
144. Zhang G, Cohn MJ (2006) Hagfish and lancelet fibrillar collagens reveal that type II collagen-based cartilage evolved in stem vertebrates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA103, 16829-16833.