Medicinal utilization of exotic plants by Bapedi traditional healers to treat human ailments in Limpopo province, South Africa

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Volumn 144, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 646-655

  Semenya, Sebua ^a   Potgieter, Martin ^a   Tshisikhawe, Milingoni ^b   Shava, Soul ^c   Maroyi, Alfred ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VENDA   (South Africa)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Bapedi traditional healers; Exotic plants; Limpopo Province; Medicinal use

Indexed keywords

ACANTHUS MONTANUS EXTRACT; AGAVE AMERICANA EXTRACT; ALTERNANTHERA PUNGENS EXTRACT; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; ARTERMISIA ANNUA EXTRACT; BIDENS PILOSA EXTRACT; CAESAPINIA DECAPETALA EXTRACT; CANNABIS; CAPSICUM CHINESE EXTRACT; CARDIOVASCULAR AGENT; CARICA PAPAYA EXTRACT; CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS EXTRACT; CITRUS LEMON EXTRACT; DATURA STRAMONIUM EXTRACT; ERIOBOTRYA JAPONICA EXTRACT; EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS EXTRACT; GAMPHOCARPUS FRUTICOSUS EXTRACT; GUAVA EXTRACT; HERBACEOUS AGENT; LANTANA CAMARA EXTRACT; LATROPHA CURCAS EXTRACT; MEDICAGO SATIVA EXTRACT; MORMORDICA CHANTIA EXTRACT; OPUNTIA FICUSINDICA EXTRACT; PICUS CARICA EXTRACT; PLANT EXTRACT; TUBERCULOSTATIC AGENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACANTHUS MONTANUS; AGAVE AMERICANA; ALFALFA; ALTERNANTHERA PUNGENS; ANTIMALARIAL ACTIVITY; APOCYNACEAE; ARTERMISIA ANNUA; ARTICLE; ASTERACEAE; BIDENS PILOSA; CAESAPINIA DECAPETALA; CAPSICUM CHINESE; CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CITRUS LEMON; DATURA STRAMONIUM; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIARRHEA; ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION; ETHNOBOTANY; EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS; EXOTIC SPECIES; FABACEAE; GAMPHOCARPUS FRUTICOSUS; GONORRHEA; GUAVA; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LANTANA CAMARA; LATROPHA CURCAS; LOQUAT; MALARIA; MEDICINAL PLANT; MENSTRUATION DISORDER; MORMORDICA CHANTIA; OPUNTIA FICUSINDICA; PAPAYA; PICUS CARICA; POMEGRANATE; RICINUS COMMUNIS; SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW; SOLANACEAE; SOUTH AFRICA; STOMACH DISEASE; TUBERCULOSIS;

ANGIOSPERMS; DATA COLLECTION; DIARRHEA; GONORRHEA; HEALTH PERSONNEL; HUMANS; MEDICINE, AFRICAN TRADITIONAL; PHYTOTHERAPY; PLANTS, MEDICINAL; SKIN ULCER; SOUTH AFRICA;

APOCYNACEAE; ASTERACEAE; CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS; FABACEAE; PUNICA GRANATUM; RICINUS COMMUNIS; SOLANACEAE;

EID: 84870302304     PISSN: 03788741     EISSN: 18727573     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.10.005     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. C. Abajo, M.A. Boffill, J. Del Campo, M.A. Mendez, Y. Gonzalez, M. Mitjans, and M.P. Vinardell In vitro study of the antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of the aqueous infusion of Bidens pilosa Journal of Ethnopharmacology 93 2004 319 323
2. E.M.M. Abubakar Antibacterial potential of crude leaf extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis against some pathogenic bacteria African Journal of Plant Science 4 2010 202 209
3. A. Adebivi, P.G. Adaikan, and R.N. Prasad Papaya (Carica papaya) consumption is unsafe in pregnancy, fact of fable? scientific evaluation of a common belief in some parts of Asia using a rat model British Journal of Nutrition 88 2002 199 203
4. Admasu, D.; 2008. Invasive Plants and Food Security: The Case of Prosopis Juliflora in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, FARM-Africa, IUCN.
5. P.K. Agarwal, A. Singh, K. Gaurav, S. Goel, H.D. Khanna, and R.K. Goel Evaluation of wound healing activity of extracts of plantain banana (Musa sapientum var. paradisiaca) in rats Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 47 2009 322 340
6. U.P. Albuquerque Re-examining hypotheses concerning the use and knowledge of medicinal plants: a study in the Caatinga vegetation of NE Brazil Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006 2006 2 30 10.1186/1746-4269-2-30
7. U.P. Albuquerque, and L.H.C. Andrade Uso de recursos vegetais da caatinga: o caso do Agreste do estado de Pernambuco (Nordeste do Brasil) Interciencia 27 2002 336 346
8. J.B. Alcorn Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany 1984 University of Texas Press Austin pp. 578-580
9. G. Alemayehu, A. Hailu, and B.M. Abegaz Bionthraquinones fromn Senna didymobotrya Phytochemistry 44 1996 1423 1425
10. M.A. Altieri Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems 1994 Food Productions Press New York
11. H.J. Arnold, and M. Gulumiam Pharmacopoeia of traditional medicine in Venda Journal of Ethnopharmacology 12 1984 35 74
12. E.A. Asongalem, H.S. Foyet, S. Ekobo, T. Dimo, and P. Kamtchouing Antiinflammatory, lack of central analgesia and antipyretic properties of Acanthus montanus (Ness) T. Anderson Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95 2004 63 68
13. S. Berkov, T. Doncheva, S. Philipov, and K. Alexandrov Ontogenetic variation of the tropane alkaloids in Datura stramonium Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 33 2005 1017 1029
14. Birhanu, A.; 2002. Use and Conservation of Human Traditional Medicinal Plants in Jabitehaan Wereda, West Gojam. M.sc. Dissertation. Addis Ababa University, Ethopia.
15. C. Bromilow Problem Plants of South Africa. A Guide to the Identification and Control of More Than 300 Invasive Plants and Other Weeds 2001 Briza Publications Pretoria
16. A. Caceres, H. Menendez, E. Mendez, E. Cohobon, B.E. Samayao, E. Jauregui, E. Peralta, and G. Carrillo Antigonorrhoeal activity of plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48 1995 85 88
17. C.P. Calderon, S.B. Garcia-Aseff, and L.B. Fuentes Evaluation of diuretic activity of Alternanthera pungens extracts in rats Phytotherapy Research 11 1998 606 608
18. Chauhan, S.P.; Sheth, N.R.; Jivani, N.P.; Rathod, I.S.; Shah, P.I.; 2010. Biological actions of Opuntia species. Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy 1, 146-151.
19. C. Clarkson, V.J. Maharaj, N.R. Crouch, M.G. Olwen, P. Pillay, M.G. Matsabisa, N. Bhagwandin, P.J. Smith, and P.I. Folb In vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalized in South Africa Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92 2004 177 191
20. Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, (Act no. 43 of 1983).; 1983. Department of Agriculture, South Africa, Pretoria.
21. P.M. De Magalhaes, I. Dupont, A. Hendrickx, A. Joly, T. Raas, S. Dessy, T. Sergent, and Y.J. Schneider Ant-inflammatory effect and modulation of cytochrome P450 activities by Artemisia annua tea infusions in human intestinal Caco-2 cells Food Chemistry 134 2012 864 871
22. H. De Wet, W.N. Nkwanyanaa, and S.F. Van Vuuren Medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in northern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa Journal of Ethnopharmacology 130 2010 284 289
23. De Wet, H.; Nzama, V.N.; Van Vuuren, S.F.; 2011. Medicinal plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted infections by lay people in northern Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 10.1016/j.sajb.2011.04.002.
24. J.A. Del Rio, M.D. Fuster, P. Gomez, I. Porras, A. Garcia-Lidon, and A. Ortuno Citrus limon: a source of flavonoids of pharmaceutical interest Food Chemistry 84 2004 457 461
25. M.S. Deutschlander, M. van de Venter, S. Roux, J. Louw, and N. Lall Hypoglycaemic activity of four plant extracts traditionally used in South Africa for diabetes Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124 2009 619 624
26. A.L. Dold, and M.L. Cocks The trade in medicinal plants in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa South African Journal of Science 98 2002 589 597
27. A. Doss, V. Parivuguna, M. Vijayasanthi, and S. Surendran. Antibacterial evaluation and phytochemical analysis of Medicago sativa L. against some microbial pathogens Indian Journal of Science and Technology 4 2011 550 552
28. A.C. Duncan, A.K. Jäger, and J. Van Staden Screening of Zulu medicinal plants for angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Journal of Ethnopharmacology 68 1999 63 70
29. C.M. Dzerefos, and E.T.F. Witkowski Density and potential utilization of medicinal grass plants from Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, South Africa Biodiversity and Conservation 10 2001 1875 1896
30. F. El-Said, E. Sofowora, A. Malcolm, and A. Hoffer An investigation into the efficacy of Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiaceae) as used in Nigeria native medicine Planta Medica 17 1969 150 165
31. A.C. Emeruwa, C.A.J. Misas, N.M.R. Hernandez, and A.M.L. Abraham Antibacterial substance from Carica papaya fruit extract Journal of Natural Products 45 1982 123 127
32. D. Estomba, A. Ladio, and M. Lozada Medicinal wild plant knowledge and gathering patterns in a Mapuche community from North-western Patagonia Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 2006 109 119
33. J. Evans Plantation Forestry in the Tropics 2nd edition 1992 Clarendon Press Oxford
34. J.J. Ewel, D. O'Dowd, J. Bergelson, C.C. Daehler, C.M. D'Antonio, L.D. Gomez, D.R. Gordon, R.J. Hobbs, A. Holt, K.R. Hopper, C.E. Hughes, M. LaHart, R.B. Leakey, G.W. Lee, L.L. Loope, D.H. Lorence, S.M. Louda, A.E. Lugo, P.B. McEvoy, D.M. Richardson, and P.M. Vitousek Deliberate introductions of species: research needs BioScience 49 1999 619 630
35. l. Fernandes, C.E.J. Van Rensburg, A.A. Hoosen, and V Steenkamp In vitro activity of medicinal plants of the Venda region, South Africa, against Trichomonas vaginalis South African Journal of Epidemiology Infections 23 2008 26 28
36. C. Galeffi, M. Nicoletti, G. Palazzino, and E. Federici Hypoxidaceae, a monocotyledons family source of norlignan glucosides with different biological activity Traditional Medicine and Materia Medica 1 2002 121 128
37. J. Gayathri, K. Parvathi, B. Chinthapalli, P. Westhoff, and A.S. Raghvendra Immunological characteristics of PEP Carboxylase from leaves of C3-, C4- and C3-C4 intermediate species of Alternanthera-Comparison with selected C3- and C4- plants Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 39 2001 643 649
38. E.L. Ghisalberti Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) Fitoterapia 71 2000 467 486
39. R. Giordani, C. Gachon, J. Moulin-Traffort, and P. Regli A synergistic effect of Carica papaya latex sap and fluconazole on Candida albicans growth Mycoses 40 1997 429 437
40. L.K. Gong, X.H. Li, L. Zhang, Y. Cai, X.M. Qi, L.L. Liu, Y.Z. Liu, X.F. Wu, F.P. Chen, G.;.G. Huang, and J. Ren Feitai attenuates bleomycin induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27 2004 634 640
41. E. Green, A. Samie, C.L. Obi, P.O. Bessong, and R.N. Ndip Inhibitory properties of selected South African medicinal plants against Mycobacterium tuberculosis Journal of Ethnopharmacology 130 2010 151 157
42. A. Gurib-Fakin Medicinal plants: tradition of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Review article Molecular Aspects of Medicine 27 2006 1 93
43. R.M.P. Gutíerrez, S. Mitchell, and R.V. Solis Psidium guajava: a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology Journal of Ethnopharmacology 117 2008 1 27
44. H. Hamburger, and K. Hostettmann The link between phytochemistry and medicine Phytochemistry 30 1991 3864 3874
45. L. Henderson Plant Invaders of Southern Africa 1995 Agricultural Research council Pretoria, South Africa
46. L. Henderson Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook 12 2001 Plant Protection Research Institute Pretoria
47. S. Heneidak, R.J. Grayer, G.C. Kite, and M.S.J. Simmonds Flavonoid glycosides from Egyptian species of the tribe Asclepiadeae (Apocynaceae, subfamily Asclepiadoideae) Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 34 2006 575 584
48. V.H. Heywood Global Biodiversity Assessment 1995 Cambridge University Press Cambridge
49. L. Holm, V.H. Pancho, J.P. Herberger, and D.L. Plucknett A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds 1979 Wiley New York, p. 7
50. M.S. Hossan, A. Hanif, B. Agarwala, M.S. Sarwar, M. Karim, M.T. Rahman, R. Jahan, and M. Rahmatullah Traditional use of medicinal plants in Bangladesh to treat urinary tract infections and sexually transmitted diseases Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8 2010 61 74
51. M.M. Hulme Wild Flowers of Natal 1954 Shuter and Shooter Pietermaritzburg
52. A. Hutchings, A.H. Scott, G. Lewis, and A.B. Cunningham Zulu medicinal plants - An inventory 1996 University of Natal Press Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
53. A.K. Ibrahim, M.M. Radwan, S.A. Ahmed, D. Slade, S.A. Ross, M.A. ElSohly, and I.A. Khan Microbial metabolism of cannflavin A and B isolated from Cannabis sativa Phytochemistry 71 2010 1014 1019
54. J. Ilavarasan, M. Mallika, and S. Venkataraman Anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activity of Ricinus communis root extract Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 2006 478 480
55. International Society of Ethnobiology International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics (with 2008 additions) 2006 (site accessed 15.04.12)
56. Invasive alien trees and water resources in South Africa. Case studies of the costs and benefits of management. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 143-159.
57. I.O.L. News Invasive alien plants shock for Water Affairs 2010 (site accessed 15.04.12)
58. A. Iranbakhsh, M. Ebadi, and M. Baya The inhibitory effects of plant methanolic extract of Datura stramonium L. and leaf explant callus against bacteria and fungi Global Veterinaria 4 2010 149 155
59. H. Ito, E. Kobayashi, Y. Takamatsu, S.H. Li, T. Hatano, H. Sakagami, K. Kusama, K. Satoh, S. Sugita, S. Shimura, Y. Itoh, and T. Yoshida Polyphenols from Eriobotrya japonica and their cytotoxicity against human oral tumor cell lines Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo) 48 2000 687 693
60. A.K. Jäger, A. Hutchings, and J. Van Staden Screening of Zulu medicinal plants for prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitors Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52 1996 95 100
61. Z. Javadmosavi, and M. Tehranipour Anti inflammation effects of leaves alcoholic extracts on neurologlia density after sciatic nerve injury in rats Pharmacologyonline 1 2011 842 850
62. M. Kamatenesi-Mugisha, and H. Oryem-Origa Traditional herbal remedies used in the management of sexual impotence and erectile dysfunction in western Uganda African Health Science 5 2005 40 49
63. J. Kim, R. Harikrishnan, M. Kim, I. Jang, D. Kim, S. Hong, C. Balasundaram, and M. Heo Enhancement of Eriobotrya japonica extracts on non-specific immune response and disease resistance in kelp grouper Epinephelus bruneus against Vibrio carchariae Fish and Shellfish Immunology 31 2011 1193 1200
64. Y. Kim, B. Koo, D. Gong, Y. Lee, J. Ko, and C. Kim Comparative effect of Prunus persica L. BATSCH-water extract and tacrine (9-amino-1,2,3,4- tetrahydroacridine hydrochloride) on concentration of extracellular acetylcholine in the rat hippocampus Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87 2003 149 154
65. E.P. Lansky, and R.A. Newman Punica granatum (pomegranate) and its potential for prevention and treatment of inflammation and cancer Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109 2007 177 206
66. D.C. Le Maitre, B.W. Van Wilgen, C.M. Gelderblom, C. Bailey, R.A. Chapman, and J.A. Nel Invasive alien trees and water resources in South Africa: case studies of the costs and benefits of management Forest Ecology Management 160 2002 143 159
67. D.C. Le Maitre, D.B. Versfeld, and R.A. Champman The impact of alien invading plants on surface water resources in South Africa: a preliminary assessment Water South Africa 26 2000 397 408
68. T. Lee, Y. Tsai, T. Huang, P. Chen, W. Liang, and C. Lee Heptadecanols from the leaves of Persea americana var. americana Food Chemistry 132 2012 921 924
69. F.B. Lewu, and A.J. Aflolayan Ethnomedicine in South Africa: the role of weedy species African Journal of Biotechnology 8 2009 929 934
70. J. Liu, C. Wang, Z. Wang, C. Zhang, S. Lu, and J. Liu The antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities of extract and fractions from corn silk (Zea mays L.) and related flavone glycosides Food Chemistry 126 2011 261 269
71. T. Lodge Provincial Government and State Authority in South Africa Journal of Southern African Studies 31 2005 748 749
72. N.K. Lohiya, B. Manivannan, P.K. Mishra, N. Pathak, S. Sriram, S.S. Bhande, and S. Panneerdoss ″Chloroform extract of Carica papaya seeds induces long-term reversible azoospermia in langur monkey″ Asian Journal of Andrology 4 2002 17 26
73. Mabogo, D.E.N.; 1990. The Ethnobotany of the Vha-Venda. M.Sc Dissertation, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
74. I.A.W. Macdonald, J.K. Reaser, C. Bright, L.E. Neville, G.W. Howard, S.J. Murphy, and J. Preston 2003 Global Invasive Species Programme Cape Town, South Africa
75. C. Marais, B.W. Van Wilgen, and D. Stevens The clearing of invasive alien plants in South Africa: a preliminary assessment of costs and progress South African Journal of Science 100 2004 97 103
76. M.C. Mathabe, R.V. Nikolova, N. Lall, and N.Z. Nyazema Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105 2006 286 293
77. V.C. Moran, and H.G. Zimmermann Biological control of jointed cactus Opuntia aurantiaca, in South Africa Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 37 1991 5 27
78. J.F. Morton Papaya: Fruits of Warm Climates 1987 Julia F. Morton Miami, Florida pp. 336-346
79. B. Mustafa, A. Hajdari, O. Pajazita, B. Syla, C.L. Quave, and A. Pieroni An ethnobotanical survey of the Gollak region, Kosovo 2011 10.1007/s10722-011- 9715-4
80. N.D. Namsa, M. Mandal, S. Tangjang, and S.C. Mandal Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh, India Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 7 2011 31 10.1186/1746-4269-7-31
81. Ndawonde, B.G.; 2006. Medicinal plant sales: a case study in northern Zululand. Unpublished M.Sc Dissertation. University of Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal.
82. Y. Nishioka, S. Yoshioka, M. Kusunose, T. Cui, A. Hamada, M. Ono, M. Miyamura, and S. Kyotani Effects of extract derived from Eriobotrya japonica on liver function improvement in rats Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 25 2002 1053 1057
83. N.G. Njoroge, W.R. Bussmann, B. Gemmill, L.E. Newton, and V.W. Ngumi Utilisation of weed species as sources of traditional medicines in central Kenya Lyonia 7 2004 71 87
84. G. Oboh, R.L. Puntel, and J.B.T. Rocha Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum, Tepin and Capsicum chinese, Habanero) prevents Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in brain - in vitro Food Chemistry 102 2007 178 185
85. K. Ogawa, I. Aoki, and Y. Sashida Caesaljapin, a cassane diterpenoid from Caesalpia decapetala var. japonica Phytochemistry 31 1992 2897 2898
86. A.P. Oliveira, P. Valentao, J.A. Pereira, B.M. Silva, F. Tavares, and P.B. Andrade Ficus carica L.: metabolic and biological screening Food and Chemical Toxicology 47 2009 2841 2846
87. O. Osoniyi, and F. Onajobi Coagulant and anticoagulant activities in Jatropha curcas latex Journal of Ethnopharmacology 89 2003 101 105
88. H.M. Pant, and N. Sharma Inventory of some exotic cultivated tree species of Doon valley and their ethnobotanical uses Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4 2010 2144 2147
89. J. Pari, and U. Maheswari Hypoglycaemic effect of Musa sapientum L. in alloxan-induced diabetic rats Journal of Ethnopharmacology 68 1999 321 325
90. M. Parihar, A. Chouhan, M.S. Harsoliya, J.K. Pathan, S. Banerjee, N. Khan, and V.M. Patel A review: cough and treatments International Journal of Natural Product Research 1 2011 9 18
91. E.H. Park, and M.J. Chun Wound healing activity of Opuntia ficus-indica Fitoterapia 72 2001 165 167
92. D.M. Pereira, F. Ferreres, J.M.A. Oliveira, L. Gaspar, J. Faria, P. Valentao, M. Sottomayor, and P.B. Andrad Pharmacological effects of Catharanthus roseus root alkaloids in acetylcholinesterase inhibition and cholinergic neurotransmission Phytomedicine 17 2010 646 652
93. M.A. Ponce, M.J. Bompadre, J.M. Scervino, J.A. Ocampo, E.J. Chaneton, and A.M. Godeas Flavonoids, benzoic acids and cinnamic acids isolated from shoots and roots of Italian rye grass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) with and without endophyte association and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 37 2009 245 253
94. D. Prashanth, M.K. Asha, and A. Amit Antibacterial activity of Punica granatum Fitoterapia 72 2001 171 173
95. R. Prescott-Allen, and E. Prescott-Allen How many plants feed the world? Conservation Biology 4 1990 365 374
96. N. Qaisar, B.A. Chaudhary, A. Dasti, A. Malik, and R. Zafar Phytochemical study of aerial parts of lantana camara for the pharmacological active compounds Applied Pharmacy 1 2009 19 26
97. T. Rabe, and J.V. Staden Antibacterial activity of South African plants used for medicinal purposes Journal of Ethnopharmacology 56 1997 81 87
98. J.N. Ramalivhana, S.R. Moyo, and L.C. Obi The possible role of medicinal plants in tackling resistant microbial pathogens in Limpopo Province, South Africa Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4 2010 999 1002
99. M. Rejmanek, and D.M. Richardson What attributes makes some plants speech more invasive? Ecology 77 1996 1655 1661
100. D.M. Richartson, P. Pysek, M. Rejmanek, M.G. Barbour, D.F. Panetta, and C.J. West Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions Diversity and Distribution 6 2000 93 107
101. J.L. Rios, and F.E. Garcia Catalogo de Malezas de Mexico 1998 Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Mexico City
102. R.L. Roys The Ethno-Botany of the Maya. Reprinted 1976 1931 Institute for the Study of Human Issues Philadelphia pp. 2, 7, 9, 12
103. C.E. Salas, M.T.R. Gomes, M. Hernandez, and M.T.P. Lopez Plant cysteine proteinases: evaluation of the pharmacological activity Phytochemistry 69 2008 2263 2269
104. G.V. Sathyavati, A.K. Gupta, and T. Neeraj Medicinal plants of India, New Delhi, 2 1987 Indian Council for Medicinal Research. pp. 540
105. O. Sattaur The shrinking gene pool New Scientist 1675 1989 37 41
106. M. Schomacher, H.D. Muller, C. Sommer, S. Schwab, and W.R. Schabitz Endocannabinoids mediates neuroprotection after transient focal cerebral ischemia Brain Research 1240 2008 213 220
107. S. Semenya, M. Potgieter, and L. Erasmus Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Bapedi healers to treat diabetes mellitus in the Limpopo Province, South Africa Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 2012 440 445
108. S.S. Semenya, M.P. Tshisikhawe, and M.T. Potgieter Invasive alien plant species: a case study of their use in the Thulamela Local Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa Scientific Research and Essays 7 2012 2363 2369
109. Semenya, S.S.; 2012. Bapedi phytomedicine and the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases in M.Sc. Dissertation. Limpopo Province, Mankweng.
110. S. Shanmugam, M. Annadurai, and K. Rajendran Ethnomedicinal plants used to cure diarrhoea and dysentery in Pachalur hills of Dindigul district in Tamil Nadu, Southern India Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 1 2011 94 97
111. U.U. Shedbalkar, V.S. Adki, J.P. Jadhav, and V.A. Bapat Opuntia and other cacti: applications and biotechnological insights Tropical Plant Biology 3 2010 136 150
112. B.S Siddiqui, F. Ilyas, M. Rasheed, and S. Begum Chemical constituents of leaves and stem bark of Plumeria obtusa Phytochemistry 65 2004 2077 2084
113. A.K. Singh, A.S. Raghubanshi, and J.S. Singh Medical ethnobotany of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81 2002 31 41
114. K.P. Singh, N.A. Shukla, and J.S. Singh State-level inventory of invasive alien plants, their source regions and use potential Current Science 99 2010 107 114
115. P. Smit Prosopis: a review of existing knowledge relevant to Namibia Journal of the Scientific Society 52 2004 13 40
116. S.G. Sparg, M.E. Light, and J. Van Staden Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins Journal of Ethnopharmacology 94 2004 219 243
117. J.R. Stepp, and D.L. Moerman The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75 2001 19 23
118. H. Tapsoba, and J. Deschamps Use of medicinal plants for the treatment of oral diseases in Burkina Faso Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 2006 68 78
119. G. Topco, G. Yapar, Z. Turkmen, G.C. Goren, S. Oksuz, J.K. Schilling, and D.G.I. Kingston Ovarian antiproliferative activity directed isolation of triterpenoids from fruits of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh Phytochemistry Letters 4 2011 421 425
120. B.W. Van Wilgen, D.M. Richardson, D.C. Le Maitre, C. Marais, and D. Magadlela The economic consequences of alien plant invasions: examples of impacts and approaches to sustainable management in South Africa Environment, Development and Sustainability 3 2001 145 168
121. B.E. Van Wyk, and M. Wink Medicinal Plants of the World: An Illustrated Scientific Guide to Important 2004 Medicinal Plants and their Uses Timber press Portland, OR, USA
122. N. Venkatrao, S.M.D. Koroth, S. Satyanarayana, K. Hemamalini, and S.M. Kumar Antidiarrhoeal and anti-inflammatory activity of fruit rind extracts of Punica granatum Indian Drugs 44 2007 909 914
123. Watt, J.M.; Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G.; 1962. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa, 2nd edition. Livingstone, London.
124. R. Westbrooks Invasive Plants, Changing the Landscape of America: Fact Book. The Federal interagency Committee for Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds 1998 Ficmnew Publishers Washington D.C, USA