Multiple session early psychological interventions for the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn , Issue 3, 2009, Pages

  Roberts, Neil P ^a   Kitchiner, Neil J ^a   Kenardy, Justin ^b   Bisson, Jonathan ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF WALES   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^c CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEPRESSION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; MULTIPLE SESSION PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC PROCEDURES, TECHNIQUES AND CONCEPTS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; PUBLISHING; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SELF REPORT; SYSTEMATIC ERROR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84869663344     PISSN: 1469493X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006869.pub2     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Andre C, Lelord F, Legeron P, Reignier A, Delattre A. Effectiveness of early intervention on 132 bus drivers victims of aggressions: a controlled trial [Etude controlee sur l'efficacite a 6mois d'une prise en charge precoce de 132 conducteurs d'autobus victimes d'agression]. L'Encephale 1997;23:65-71.
2. Brom D, Kleber RJ, Hofman M. Victims of traffic accidents: Incidence and prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1993;49(2):131-140 (Pubitemid 23133547)
3. * Gamble J, Creedy D, Moyle W, Webster J, McAllister M, Dickson P. Effectiveness of a counseling intervention after a traumatic childbirth: A randomized controlled trial. Birth 2005;32(1):11-19.
4. Gidron Y, Gal R, Freedman S, Twiser I, Lauden A, Snir Y, et al.Translating research findings to PTSD prevention: Results of a randomized-controlled pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2001;14(4):773-780 (Pubitemid 34019927)
5. * Gidron Y, Gal R, Givati G, Lauden A, Snir Y, Binjamin J. Interactive effects of Memory Structuring and gender in preventing posttraumatic stress symptoms. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2007;195(2):179-182
6. * Holmes A, Hodgins G, Adey S, Menzel S, Danne P, Kossmann T, Judd F.Trial of interpersonal counselling aftermajor physical trauma. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2007;41:926-933
7. Kazak AE, Simms S, Alderfer MA, Rourke MT, Crump T, McClure K, et al.Feasibility and preliminary outcomes from a pilot study of a brief psychological intervention for families of children newly diagnosed with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2005;30(8):644-655 (Pubitemid 41567083)
8. Marchand A, Guay S, Boyer R, Lucci S, Martin A, St-Hilaire M. A randomized controlled trial of an adapted form of individual critical incident stress debriefing for victims of an armed robbery. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention 2006;6:122-129
9. Ryding EL, Wijma K, Wijma B. Postpartum counselling after an emergency cesarean. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 1998;5:231-237
10. Ryding EL, Wiren E, Johansson G, Ceder B, Dahlstrom A. Group counselling formothers after emergency cesarean section: A randomized controlled trial of intervention. Birth 2004;31(4):247-253 (Pubitemid 41710054)
11. Zatzick DF, Roy-Byrne P, Russo JE, Rivara FP, Koike A, JurkovichGJ, Katon W. Collaborative interventions for physically injured trauma survivors: A pilot randomized effectiveness trial. General Hospital Psychiatry 2001;23:114-123 (Pubitemid 32586813)
12. * Backman L, Arnetz BB, Levin D, Lublin A. Psychphysiological effects of mental imaging training for police trainees. Stress Medicine 1997;13:43-48
13. Bisson JI, Shepherd JP, Joy D, Probert R, Newcombe RG. Early cognitive-behavioural therapy for post-traumatic stress symptoms after physical injury. British Journal of Psychiatry 2004;184:63-69
14. Bordow S, Porritt D. An experimental evaluation of crisis intervention. Social Science & Medicine 1979;13A(3):251-256
15. Bryant RA, Harvey AG, Basten C, Dang ST, Sackville T. Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder: A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 1998;66(5):862-866 (Pubitemid 28478356)
16. Bryant RA, Sackville T, Dang ST, Moulds M, Guthrie R. Treating acute stress disorder: An evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. American Journal of Psychiatry 1999;156(11):1780-1786 (Pubitemid 29517572)
17. Bryant RA, Moulds M, Guthrie R, Nixon RDV. Treating acute stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003;160:585-587 (Pubitemid 41094274)
18. Bryant RA, Moulds ML, Guthrie RM, Nixon RDV. The additive benefits of hypnosis and cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating acute stress disorder. Journal ofConsulting&Clinical Psychology 2005;73(2):334-340
19. * Bryant RA, Mastrodomenico J, Felmingham KL, Hopwood S, Kenny L, Kandris E, Cahill C, Creamer M. Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 2008;65(6):659-667.
20. * Bugg A, Turpin G, Mason S, Scholes C. A randomised controlled trial of the effectiveness of writing as a self-help intervention for traumatic injury patients at risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2009;47(1):6-12.
21. * Collie K, Kreshka MA, Ferrier S, Parsons R, Graddy K, Avram S, et al.Video conferencing for delivery of breast cancer support groups to women living in rural communities: A pilot study. Psycho-oncology In press.
22. * Devilly GJ, Spence SH. The relative efficacy and treatment distress of EMDR and a cognitive- behavior trauma treatment protocol in the amelioration of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1999;13(1-2):131-157
23. Echeburua E, de Corral P, Sarasua B, Zubizarreta I. Treatment of acute posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: An experimental study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1996;10(3):185-199 (Pubitemid 26171066)
24. Ehlers A, Clark DM, Hackmann A, McManus F, Fennell M, Herbert C, et al.A randomized controled trial of cognitive therapy, a self help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003;60:1024-1032 (Pubitemid 37222086)
25. * Falsetti SA, Resnick HS, Davis J, Gallagher NG. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with comorbid panic attacks: Combining cognitive processing therapy with panic control treatment techniques. Group Dynamics 2001;5(4):252-260
26. * Fecteau G, Nicki R. Cognitive behavioural treatment of post traumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accident. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 1999;27(3):201-214
27. * Foa EB, Rauch SA. Cognitive changes during prolonged exposure versus prolonged exposure plus cognitive restructuring in female assault survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(5):879-884
28. Foa EB, Zoellner LA, Feeny NC. An evaluation of three brief programs for facilitating recovery after assault. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2006;19(1):29-43.
29. * Lange A, van de Ven JP, Schrieken B, Emmelkamp PM. Interapy. Treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet: a controlled trial. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2001;32(2):73-90.
30. * Lee C, Gavriel H, Drummond P, Richards J, Greenwald R. Treatment of PTSD: stress inoculation training with prolonged exposure compared to EMDR. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2002;58(9):1071-1089
31. * Levine EG, Eckhardt J, Targ E. Change in post-traumatic stress symptoms following psychosocial treatment for breast cancer. Psychooncology 2005;14(8):618-635
32. * Marcus SV, Marquis P, Sakai C. Controlled study of treatment of PTSD using EMDR in an HMO setting. Psychotherapy 1997;34(3):307-315
33. * Power K, McGoldrick T, Brown K, Buchanan R, Sharp D, Swanson V,&Karatzias A. A controlled comparison of eyemovement desensitisation and reprocessing versus exposure plus cognitive restructuring versus waiting list in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 2002;9(5):299-318.
34. * Resnick H, Acierno R, Kilpatrick DG, Holmes M.Description of an early intervention to prevent substance abuse and psychopathology in recent rape victims. Behavior Modification 2005;29(1):156-188.
35. * Rose S, Brewin CR, Andrews B, Kirk M. A randomized controlled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychological Medicine 1999;29:793-799
36. * Rosser R, Dewar S, Thompson J. Psychological aftermath of the King's Cross fire. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1991;84:4-8.
37. * Rothbaum BO. A controlled study of eyemovement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder sexual assault victims. Bulletin of the Meninger Clinic 1997;61:317-334
38. Rothbaum BA, Houry D, Heekin M, Leiner AS, Daugherty J, Smith LS, et al.A pilot study of an exposure-based intervention in the emergency department designed to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder A Pilot Study of an Exposure-Based Intervention in the Emergency Department Designed to Prevent Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Submitted for publication.
39. Scheck MM, Schaeffer JA, Gillette C. Brief psychological intervention with traumatized young women: the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1998;11(1):25-44. (Pubitemid 28097790)
40. Schoutop MJA, Lange A, Hanewald G, Davidovich U. Structured writing and processing major stressful events: A contolled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2002;71:151-157 (Pubitemid 34522859)
41. Sijbrandij M, Olff M, Reitsma JB, Carlier IVE, De Vries MH, Gersons BPR. Treatment of acute posttraumatic stress disorder with brief cognitive behavioural therapy: A randomised controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007;164:82-90. (Pubitemid 46156834)
42. * Sloan DM, Marx BP. A closer examination of the structured written disclosure procedure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(2):165-175
43. Steffgen G, de Boer C, Bollendorff C. Prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder in bank clerks after a bank robbery [Prävention der Posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung bei Bankangestellten nach einem Überfall]. Arbeitsmedizin SozialmedizinUmweltmedizin 2002;37(8):369-372
44. * Taylor S, Thordarson DS, Maxfield L, Fedoroff IC, Lovell K, Ogrodniczuk J. Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003;71(2):330-338
45. Turpin G, Downs M, Mason S. Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). British Journal of Psychiatry 2005;187(1):76-82.
46. van Emmerik AAP, Kamphuis JH, Emmelkamp PMG.Treating acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder with cognitive behavioural therapy or structured writing therapy: A randomised controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2008;77(2):93-100.
47. Wagner AW, Zatzick DF, Ghesquiere A, Jurkovoich GJ. Behavioral activation as an early intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 2007;14(4):341-349
48. * Wilson SA, Becker LA, Tinker RH. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for psychologically traumatized individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1995;63(6):928-937
49. Zatzick D, Roy-Byrne P, Russo J, Rivara F, Droesch R, Wagner A, et al.A randomized effectiveness trial of stepped collaborative care for acutely injured trauma survivors. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004;61(5):498-506. (Pubitemid 38620849)
50. Öst LG, Paunovic N, Gillow AM. Cognitive-behavior therapy in the prevention of chronic PTSD in crime victims. Unpublished manuscript.
51. Kilpatrick DG, Veronen LJ.Treatment of rape-related problems: Crisis intervention is not enough. In: Cohen L, Claiborn W, Specter G editor(s). Crisis Intervention: Community-Clinical Psychology Series. Second Edition. New York: Human Services Press, 1984.
52. Bousquet Des Groseilliers I, Cordova M, Ruzek J, Marchand A, Brunet A.An intervention based on social support can prevent PTSD symptoms: A randomized-controlled trial. 22nd Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, November 4 - 7 2006, Hollywood, CA. 2006:189-190
53. Frommberger U, Nyberg E, Angenendt J, Stieglitz R, Nowotnybehrens U, Berger M. Manualized early cognitive-behavioral intervention programin accident victims: A prospective study. XII World Congress of Psychiatry, Aug 24-29, 2002, Yokohama, Japan. 2002.
54. Georgiades S. Investigation of the efficacy of CBT and EMDR therapy in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a comparative study. National Research Register 2000.
55. Greenberg N, Langston V, Iversen A, Wessely S. A cluster randomised controlled trial to determine the efficacy of TRiM (Trauma Risk Management) in achieving a positive culture change, reducing organisational distress and improving unit response to traumatic events. In preparation.
56. Hoge C, Castro C, Adler A, Mcgurk D, Paul B, Wright K, Milliken C. The efficacy of battlemind training in facilitating the transition from combat to home among soldiers. 22nd Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, November 4 - 7 2006, Hollywood, CA. 2006:87.
57. Koopman C, Kreshka MA, Bodai BI, Chen XH, Angell KL, Nakata T, et al.The effects of a workbook-journal in reducing depression and posttraumatic stress disorder in rural/socially isolated women newly diagnosed with breast cancer. 63rd Annual Meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society, 2005 March 2-5, Vancouver, Canada. 2005.
58. Australian Centre for Posttraumatic MentalHealth. Australian guidelines for the treatment of adults with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. ACPMH, 2007.
59. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
60. Baum A, Gatchel RJ, Schaeffer MA. Emotional , behavioral and physiological effects of chronic stress at Three Mile Island. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1983;51:565-572 (Pubitemid 14245740)
61. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory formeasuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1961;4:561-571
62. Beck AT, Epstein N, Brown G, Steer RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1988;56:893-897 (Pubitemid 19008360)
63. Bisson JI, Roberts N, Macho G. Service innovations: The Cardiff traumatic stress initiative: An evidence-based approach to early psychological intervention following traumatic events. Psychiatric Bulletin 2003;27(4):145-147 (Pubitemid 36427006)
64. Bisson JI, Andrews M. Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub3]
65. Bisson JI, Ehlers A, Matthews R, Pilling S, Richards D, Turner S. Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 2007;190(2):97-104. (Pubitemid 46256183)
66. Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM, Kaloupek DG, Gusman FD, Charney, D.S, et al.The development of a clinician administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1995;8(1):75-90.
67. Bonanno GA. Loss, trauma and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?. American Psychologist 2004;59(1):20-28
68. Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L, Westen D. A Multidimensional Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005;162(2):214-227
69. Brewin CR. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Malady or Myth. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.
70. Brewin CR, Scragg P, Robertson M, Thompson M, d'Ardenne P, Ehlers A. Promoting mental health following the London bombings: A screen and treat approach. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2008;1:3-8.
71. Crummier TL, Green BL. Posttraumatic stress disorder as an early response to sexual assualt. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1991;6:160-173
72. Davidson JR, Book SW, Colket L, Tupler LA, Roth S, David D, et al.Assessment of a new self-rating scale for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine 1997;27:153-160 (Pubitemid 27042727)
73. Ehlers A, Mayou RA, Bryant B. Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1998;107(3):508-519 (Pubitemid 28369259)
74. Ehlers A, Clark DM. Early psychological interventions for adult survivors of trauma: A review. Biological Psychiatry 2003;53:817-826 (Pubitemid 36513758)
75. Fletcher J.What is heterogeneity and is it important?. British Medical Journal 2007;334:94-96
76. Foa EB. Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale Manual. United States of America: National Computer Systems, Inc, 1995.
77. Foa EB, Meadows EA. Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review of Psychology 1997;48:449-480 (Pubitemid 127485183)
78. Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, Cohen JA. Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guildford Press, 2008.
79. Gleser CG, Green BL, Winget CN. Prolonged psychosocial effects of disaster. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
80. Goenjian A. A mental health relief programme in Armenia after the 1988 Earthquake: Implementation and clinical observations. British Journal of Psychiatry 1993;163:230-239
81. Gray MJ, Litz BT. Behavioral interventions for recent trauma. Behavior Modification 2005;29(1):189-215.
82. Green BL, Grace MC, Lindy JD, Gleser GC, Leonard AC, Crummier TL. Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: comparison with unexposed and nonlitigant groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1990;20:1033-1050
83. Hertlein KM, Ricci RJ. A systematic research synthesis of EMDR studies: Implementation of the platinum standard. Trauma, Violence and Abuse 2004;5(3):285-300.
84. Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. www.cochrane.org/resouces/handbook/hbook.htm 4.2.5, [updated May 2005] (assessed 31 May 2005).
85. Horowitz MJ, Wilner N, Alvarez W. Impact of Event Scale: ameasure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine 1979;41:209-218 (Pubitemid 9219271)
86. Hough RL, Vega WA, Valle R, Kolody B, Griswald del Castillo R, Tarke, H.Mental health consequences of the San Ysidro McDonald's massacre: A community study. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1990;3:71-92.
87. Ipser JC, Seedat S, Stein DJ. Pharmacotherapy for prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006239] (Pubitemid 46841286)
88. Kenardy J, Carr V. Imbalance in the debriefing debate: what we don't know outweighs what we do. Bulletin of the Australian Psychological Society 1996;17(1):4-6.
89. Kessler R, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 1995;52:1048-1060
90. Kilpatrick DG, Saunders BE, Veronen LJ, Best CL, Von JM. Criminal victimization: Lifetime prevelance reporting to police, and psychological impact. Crime and Delinquency 1987;33:479-489
91. Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, Jordan BK, Hough RL, Marmar CR, et al.Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: Report of findings form the Vietnam Veterans Study. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1990.
92. Litz BT, Gray MJ, Bryant RA, Adler AB. Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 2002;9(2):112-134 (Pubitemid 41288890)
93. Litz BT, Gray MJ. Early intervention for trauma in adults: A framework for first aid and secondary prevention. In: Litz BT editor(s). Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press, 2004.
94. McFarlane AC. The longitudinal course of posttraumatic morbidity: The range of outcomes and their predictors. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1988;176:22-29
95. McNally RJ, Bryant RA, Ehlers A. Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress disorder?. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2003;4(2):45-79. (Pubitemid 39080012)
96. Moncrieff J, Churchill R, Drummond C. Development of a quality assessment for trials of treatment for depression and neurosis. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 2001;10(3):126-133 (Pubitemid 33014580)
97. National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. London: National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, 2005.
98. National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD. Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide. www.nctsn.org and www.ncptsd.va.gov. 2nd 2006.
99. North CS, Smith EM, Spitzangel EL. Postraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry 1994;151:82-88
100. Ormerod J. Current research into the effectiveness of debriefing. PsychologicalDebriefing. Leicester: The British Psychological Society, 2002:8-17.
101. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan) Version 4.2 for Windows. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2003.
102. Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, Bisson JI.Multiple session early psychological interventions to treat acute traumatic stress symptoms (draft Cochrane review). Submitted for editorial review to CCDAN.
103. Rose S, Bisson J, Churchill R, Wessely S. Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000560]
104. Rothbaum BO, Foa EB, Riggs DS, Murdock T, Walsh W. A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1992;5:455-475
105. Ruzek JI. Wanted: A Theory of Post-Trauma Information Delivery. Paper presented at the European Conference on Traumatic Stress, Opatija, Croatia. 2007.
106. Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. Manual for the Stait-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, California, 1970.
107. Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002795.pub2] (Pubitemid 46841286)
108. van Emmerik AA, Kamphuis JH, Hulsbosch AM, Emmelkamp PM. Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: ameta-analysis. Lancet 2002;360:766-771
109. Ware JE, Snow KK, Kosinski M, Gandek B. SF-36® Health Survey Manual and Interpretation Guide. Boston, MA: New England Medical Center, The Health Institute, 1993.