Overcoming barriers to effective recognition and diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 18, Issue SUPPL.6, 2012, Pages 13-20

  Wilcox, M H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

C. difficile; C. difficile infection; Diagnosis; Diagnostic algorithms

Indexed keywords

METRONIDAZOLE; VANCOMYCIN;

ALGORITHM; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; CYTOTOXICITY; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; FALSE NEGATIVE RESULT; FALSE POSITIVE RESULT; INCUBATION TIME; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION PREVENTION; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; LONG TERM CARE; MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS; MOLECULAR TYPING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEIC ACID AMPLIFICATION; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

EID: 84868574552     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: 14690691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12057     Document Type: Review

References (34)

1. Crobach MJT, Dekkers OM, Wilcox MH et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): data review and recommendations for diagnosing Clostridium difficile-infection (CDI). Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15: 1053-1066.
2. Bartlett JG. Historical perspective on studies of Clostridium difficile and C. difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: S4-S11.
3. Freeman J, Bauer MP, Baines SD et al. The changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23: 529-549.
4. Bauer MP, Notermans DW, van Benthem BH et al. Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a hospital-based survey. Lancet 2011; 377: 63-73.
5. Huhulescu S, Sagel U, Fiedler A et al. Rifaximin disc diffusion test for in vitro susceptibility testing of Clostridium difficile. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60: 1206-1212.
6. Wilcox MH, Smyth ETM. Incidence and impact of Clostridium difficile infection in the UK, 1993-1996. J Hosp Infect 1998; 39: 181-187.
7. Wilcox MH. Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: in a state of transition or confusion or both?J Hosp Infect 2011; 79: 1-3.
8. Brazier JS. The diagnosis of Clostridium-difficile-associated disease. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 41: 29-40.
9. Sloan LM, Duresko BJ, Gustafson DR et al. Comparison of real-time PCR for detection of the tcdC gene with four toxin immunoassays and culture in diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 1996-2001.
10. Larson AM, Fung AM, Fang FC. Evaluation of tcdB real-time PCR in a three-step diagnostic algorithm for detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 124-130.
11. Planche T, Aghaizu A, Hollman R et al. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile by toxin detection kits: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 2008; 8: 777-784.
12. Eastwood K, Else P, Charlett A et al. Comparison of nine commercially available Clostridium difficile toxin detection assays, a real-time PCR assay for C. difficile tcdB, and a glutamate dehydrogenase detection assay to cytotoxin testing and cytotoxigenic culture methods. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 3211-3217.
13. Wilcox MH, Eastwood M. Evaluation report: Clostridium difficile toxin detection assays. London: NHS Purchasing and Supply Agency, 2009.
14. Novak-Weekley SM, Marlowe EM, Miller JM et al. Clostridium difficile testing in the clinical laboratory by use of multiple testing algorithms. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 889-893.
15. Tenover FC, Novak-Weekley SM, Woods CW et al. Impact of strain types on detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile: comparison of molecular diagnostic and enzyme immunoassay approaches. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 3719-3724.
16. Drees M, Snydman DR, O'Sullivan CE. Repeated enzyme immunoassays have limited utility in diagnosing Clostridium difficile. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 27: 397-399.
17. Litvin M, Reske KA, Mayfield J et al. Identification of a pseudo-outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and repeated testing, sensitivity, and specificity on perceived prevalence of CDI. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009; 30: 1166-1171.
18. Goldenberg SD, French GL. Diagnostic testing for Clostridium difficile: a comprehensive survey of laboratories in England. J Hosp Infect 2011; 79: 4-7.
19. Chand MA, Fleming MJ, Wellsteed S et al. Impact of changes in Clostridium difficile diagnostic testing on detection of C. difficile infection and all England mandatory surveillance data. J Hosp Infect 2011; 79: 8-12.
20. Belanger S, Boissinot M, Clairoux N et al. Rapid detection of Clostridium difficile in feces by real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 730-734.
21. Wilcox MH, Planche T, Pang PC et al. Point-counterpoint. What is the current role of algorithmic approaches for diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection?J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 4347-4353.
22. Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A et al. Asymptomatic carriage of Clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 390-397.
23. Riggs MM, Sethi AK, Zabarsky TF et al. Asymptomatic carriers are a potential source for transmission of epidemic and non-epidemic strains of Clostridium difficile strains among long-term care facilities. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 992-998.
24. Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ, van Dissel JT. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ECSMID): treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15: 1067-1079.
25. Wilcox M, Fawley W. Viral gastroenteritis increases the reports of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2007; 66: 395-396.
26. Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 422-431.
27. Bouza E, Dryden M, Mohammed R et al. Results of a phase III trial comparing tolevamer, vancomycin and metronidazole in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14: S103-S104.
28. Lowy I, Molrine DC, Leav BA et al. Treatment with monoclonal antibodies against Clostridium difficile toxins. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 197-205.
29. Sethi AK, Al-Nassir WN, Nerandzic MM et al. Persistence of skin contamination and environmental shedding of Clostridium difficile during and after treatment of C. difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010; 31: 21-27.
30. Musher DM, Stager C. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54: 1675-1676.
31. Kufelnicka AM, Kirn TJ. Effective utilization of evolving methods for the laboratory diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52: 1451-1457.
32. Walker AS, Eyre DW, Wyllie DH et al. Characterisation of Clostridium difficile hospital ward-based transmission using extensive epidemiological data and molecular typing. PLoS Med 2012; 9: 1-11.
33. Johnson S, Homann SR, Bettin KM et al. Treatment of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriers (fecal excretors) with vancomycin or metronidazole. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 297-302.
34. Department of Health. Updated guidance on the diagnosis and reporting of Clostridium difficile, 6 March 2012. Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_132927 (last accessed 4 May 2012).