The diplomatic lead in the united nations security council and local actors' violence: The changing terms of a social position

African Security

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 63-87

  Ambrosetti, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ PARIS OUEST NANTERRE LA DÉFENSE   (France)

Author keywords

Diplomatic leadership; DRC; Interactionist sociology; Peace operations; Role; Rwanda; Sierra Leone; UN Security Council

Indexed keywords

EID: 84868343138     PISSN: 19392206     EISSN: 19392214     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/19392206.2012.682471     Document Type: Article

References (141)

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58. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, notably 26-27, 48-54, 91-2, 103-104, 297-298.
59. Into the French delegation, some even say "on a le lead" (using the English word).
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67. Fen O. Hampson and Michael Hart, Multilateral Negotiations: Lessons from Arms Control, Trade, and the Environment (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 42.
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72. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
73. About this U.S. frequent strategy, see Whitfield, Friends Indeed?, 62.
74. Adelman and Suhrke, The Path to Genocide, 37.
75. Bruce Jones, Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001).
76. Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Chapter 4.
77. Alison Brysk, Craig Parsons, and Wayne Sandholtz, "After Empire: National Identity and Post-Colonial Families of Nations, " European Journal of International Relations 8, no. 2 (2002): 267-305.
78. Louis Balmond, ed., Les interventions militaires françaises en Afrique (Paris: A. Pedone, 1998).
79. Daniel Bourmaud, "La politique africaine de Jacques Chirac: les anciens contre les modernes, " Modern and Contemporary France 4 (1996): 431-442.
80. Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, L'Afrique sans la France. Histoire d'un divorce consommé (Paris: Albin Michel, 2002).
81. France Assemblée nationale, Pierre Brana, and Bernard Cazeneuve, Enquête sur la tragédie rwandaise, Rapport d'information déposé par la Mission d'information de la Commission de la Défense nationale et des forces armées et de la Commission des Affaires étrangères sur les opérations militaires menées par la France, d'autres pays et l'ONU au Rwanda entre 1990 et 1994, Paris, no. 1271, December 1998.
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83. OAU (Organisation of African Unity, Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide: The Report of the International Panel of Eminent Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and the Surrounding Events (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Organisation of African Unity, 2000).
84. Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (London: Hurst, 1997).
85. France Assemblée nationale, Brana, and Cazeneuve, Enquête sur la tragédie rwandaise (vol. 1), 299.
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91. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1996).
92. Tull and Mehler, "The Hidden Costs of Power Sharing".
93. Piccolino and Karlsrud, "Withering Consent, but Mutual Dependency. "
94. Barnett, "UN Security Council, Indifference, and Genocide in Rwanda. "
95. Paul Williams, "Peace Operations and the International Financial Institutions: Insights from Rwanda and Sierra Leone, " International Peacekeeping 11, no. 1 (2004): 103-123.
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97. Clapham, Africa and the International System.
98. Marine Lefèvre, Le soutien américain à la francophonie. Enjeux africains, 1960-1970 (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2010).
99. Adekeye Adebajo relates the weight of this financial concern from the United States during Boutros Boutros-Ghali mandate (the appointment of the American Joseph Connor as Undersecretary-General for Management in 1994 was no accident in this regard) then Kofi Annan's (and the priority given by the Ghanaian to collect a U.S. accumulated debt to the UN of $1.6 billion). Adekeye Adebajo, The Curse of Berlin, 85-86, 92.
100. Alison Des Forges, Human Rights Watch and Fédération internationale des droits de l'homme, "Leave None to Tell the Story": Genocide in Rwanda (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999).
101. Jean-Paul Kimonyo, Rwanda, un génocide populaire (Paris: Karthala, 2008).
102. Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 428-473.
103. Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis.
104. Gilbert Khadiagala, "Implementing the Arusha Peace Agreement on Rwanda, " in Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements, eds. Stephen J. Stedman, Donald Rothchild, and Elizabeth M. Cousens (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), 87-106.
105. Williams, "Peace Operations and the International Financial Institutions. "
106. Olonisakin, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone, 19.
107. Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest, 85.
108. Peter J. Schraeder, "Removing the Shackles? U.S. Foreign Policy toward Africa After the End of the Cold War, " in Africa in the New International Order: Rethinking State Sovereignty and Regional Security, eds. Ed Keller, and Don Rothschild (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996), 187-203.
109. Roméo Dallaire and Brent Beardsley, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (Toronto: Random House Canada, 2003).
110. Samantha Power, "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 329-390.
111. OAU, Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide.
112. United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda (New York: United Nations, 1999).
113. Linda Melvern, A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide (London: Zed Books, 2009). Adekeye Adebajo offers interesting elements about this tragic episode for the UN Secretariat, through Boutros Boutros-Ghali and Kofi Annan's personal experience of it.
114. Dallaire and Beardsley, Shake Hands with the Devil.
115. Paolo Tripodi, "When Peacekeepers Fail Thousands Are Going to Die. The ETO in Rwanda: A Story of Deception, " Small Wars & Insurgencies 17, no. 2 (2006): 221-236.
116. Barnett, "UN Security Council, Indifference, and Genocide in Rwanda. "
117. David Ambrosetti, "Beyond the 'Norm Entrepreneur' Model: Rwanda, Darfur, and Social Sanction among UN Diplomats, " Global Society 24, no. 2 (2010): 151-171.
118. Châtaigner, L'ONU dans la crise en Sierra Leone, 112-113.
119. Comfort Ero, "British Foreign Policy and the Conflict in Sierra Leone, " in Sierra Leone, One Year after Lomé: One-Day Analytical Conference on the Peace Process in London, 15 September 2000, ed. O. Oludipe, (London: Centre for Democracy and Development Planning Series, no. 5, 2000), 110-111.
120. Paul Williams, "La Grande-Bretagne de Tony Blair et l'Afrique, " Politique Africaine 94 (2004): 116.
121. Olonisakin, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone.
122. Paul Richards and James Vincent, "Sierra Leone: Marginalization of the RUF, " in From Soldiers to Politicians. Transforming Rebel Movements after Civil War, ed. Jeroen de Zeeuw, (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008), 81-102.
123. United Nations official records S/PV.4577 Resumption 1.
124. United Nations, Report of the Panel on United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (New York: United Nations, July 17, 2000).
125. United Nations official records S/PV.3377.
126. United Nations official records S/PV.3392.
127. African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair, and Defiance (London: African Rights, 1995), 698-711.
128. France Assemblée nationale, Brana, and Cazeneuve, Enquête sur la tragédie rwandaise (vol. 1), 288-289.
129. Jones, "Intervention without Borders, " 231.
130. HRW (Human Rights Watch)/FIDH (Fédération internationale des droits de l'homme), Democratic Republic in the Congo: What Kabila is Hinding. Civilian Killings and Impunity in Congo, October 1997, www.hrw.org/reports97/congo (January 1, 2005). See also René Lemarchand, "Foreign Policy Making in the Great Lakes Region, " in African Foreign Policies: Power & Process, eds. Gilbert M. Khadiagala and Terence Lyons (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers 2001), 87-106.
131. Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late 20th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
132. Prunier, From Genocide to Continental War.
133. Peter Schraeder, "Belgium, France, and the United States, " in Security Dynamics in Africa's Great Lakes Region, ed. Gilbert M. Khadiagala (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006), for different accounts.
134. Interviews with concerned actors and the study of French diplomatic cables dated by November 14, 1996, support this claim. Some actors told us that the French had to complain as their delegation was not even invited in operational meetings preparing the military intervention (that never came). The article "As Mobutu Totters, France Ponders Options" by Craig R. Whitney, New York Times, April 15, 1997, gives some ex post indications about this French diplomatic defeat.
135. Peter Rosenblum, "Irrational Exuberance: The Clinton Administration in Africa, " Current History 100, no. 655 (2002): 195-203.
136. Resolution #1080 authorizing the operation was adopted on November 15, 1996. In this public meeting, the UNSC welcomed at its table 19 delegations other than the UNSC members, and the draft for the resolution was eventually sponsored by 33 delegations at end of the session and adopted unanimously by the UNSC. United Nations official records S/PV.3713. See John B. Hay, Conditions of Influence: A Canadian Case Study in the Diplomacy of Intervention, Occasional paper no. 19 (Ottawa: Carleton University, the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, 1999).
137. Resolution #1080 authorizing the operation was adopted on November 15, 1996. In this public meeting, the UNSC welcomed at its table 19 delegations other than the UNSC members, and the draft for the resolution was eventually sponsored by 33 delegations at end of the session and adopted unanimously by the UNSC. United Nations official records S/PV.3713. See John B. Hay, Conditions of Influence: A Canadian Case Study in the Diplomacy of Intervention, Occasional paper no. 19 (Ottawa: Carleton University, the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, 1999).
138. HRW/FIDH, Democratic Republic in the Congo.
139. Lemarchand, "Foreign Policy Making in the Great Lakes Region".
140. Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda.
141. Niagalé Bagayoko and Marie V. Gibert, "The Linkage between Security, Governance and Development: The European Union in Africa, " Journal of Development Studies 45, no. 5 (2009): 789-814.