Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review

Algal Research

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 120-133

  Moheimani, N R ^a   Webb, J P ^a   Borowitzka, M A ^a  

^a MURDOCH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Biofuel; Calcification; Carbon concentrating mechanism; Carbon models; Emiliania; Pleurochrysis

Indexed keywords

ALGAE; EMILIANIA; HAPTOPHYCEAE; PLEUROCHRYSIS;

EID: 84867715744     PISSN: 22119264     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2012.06.002     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Rogner H.-H., Zhou D., Bradley R., Crabbé P., Edenhofer O., Hare B., et al. Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Introduction. In Climate Change 2007 2007, 116. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. O.R.D.B. Metz, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (Eds.).
2. Herzog H.J., Drake E.M. Carbon dioxide recovery and disposal from large energy systems. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 1996, 21:145-166.
3. 2 mitigation. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S467-S473.
4. Vitousek P.M. Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology 1994, 75:1861-1876.
5. IPCC Climate change 2007: synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the 4th Assessment. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change., Cambridge 2007, L.K. Kim JM, K. Shin, J.H. Kang (Eds.).
6. Society T.R. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide 2005, The Royal Society, London.
7. Schneider K., Erez J. The effect of carbonate chemistry on calcification and photosynthesis in the hermatypic coral Acropora eurystoma. Limnology and Oceanography 2006, 51:1284-1293.
8. Turkenburg W.C. Sustainable development, climate change, and carbon dioxide removal (CDR). Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S3-S12.
9. Kane R.L., Klein D.E. United States strategy for mitigating global climate change. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S13-S18.
10. 2 mitigation with microalgae systems. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:475-479.
11. 2 capture. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S37-S42.
12. Spencer D.F. Ocean systems for managing the global carbon cycle. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S265-S271.
13. 2 problem. Climatic Change 1977, 1:59-68.
14. Ohsumi T. Introduction: what is the ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide?. Journal of Oceanography 2004, 60:693-694.
15. Hase R., Oikawa H., Sasso C., Morita M., Watanabe Y. Photosynthetic production of microalgal biomass in a raceway system under greenhouse conditions in Sendi city. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 2000, 89:157-163.
16. Klasson K.T., Davison B.H. Estimation of carbon credits in the carbon dioxide sequestration activities. First National Conference on Carbon Sequestration 2001, 1-17. U.S Department Energy, Washington, DC. K.T. Klasson (Ed.).
17. Richmond A., Zou N. Efficient utilisation of high photon irradiance for mass production of photoautotrophic micro-organisms. Journal of Applied Phycology 1999, 11:123-127.
18. Tredici M.R., Materassi R. From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms. Journal of Applied Phycology 1992, 4:221-231.
19. Borowitzka M.A., Moheimani N. Sustainable biofuels from algae. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2010, 10.1007/s11027-010-9271-9.
20. Fon Sing S., Isdepsky A., Borowitzka M., Moheimani N. Production of biofuels from microalgae. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2011, 1-26. 10.1007/s11027-011-9294-x.
21. 2 problem," with special reference to the investments of the global environment facility. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 1994, 19:423-455.
22. Lackner K.S. A guide to CO2 sequestration. Science 2003, 300:1677-1678.
23. 2 for microalgae cultivation economic impact of different process options. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S505-S510.
24. Green J.C., Jordan R.W. Systematic history and taxonomy. The Haptophyte algae 1994, 1-23. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
25. Siesser W.G. Historical background of coccolithophore studies. Coccolithophores 1994, 1-12. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A. Winter, W.G. Siesser (Eds.).
26. Young J.R., Bergen J.A., Bowen P.R., Burnett J.a., Fiorentino A., Jordan R.W., et al. Guidelines for coccolith and calcareous nannofossil terminology. Palaentology 1997, 40:875-912.
27. Cros L., Kleijne A., Zeltner A., Billard C., Young J.R. New example of holococcolith-heterococcolith combination coccospheres and their implications for coccolithophorid biology. Marine Micropaleontology 1999, 39:1-34.
28. Geisen M., Billard C., Broerse A.T.C., Cros L., Probert I., Young J.R. Life-cycle association involving pairs of holococcolithophorid species: intraspecific variation or cryptic specification?. European Journal of Phycology 2002, 37:531-550.
29. Young J.R., Davis S.A., Bown P.R., Mann S. Coccolith ultrastructure and biomineralization. Journal of Structural Biology 1999, 126:195-215.
30. Billard C. Life cycles. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 167-186. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
31. Young J.R., Ziveri P. Calculation of coccolith volume and its use in calibration of carbonate flux estimates. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 2000, 47:1679-1700.
32. Houdan A., Billard C., Marie D., Not F., Saez A.G., Young J.R., et al. Holococcolithophore--heterococcolithophore (Haptophyta) life cycles: flow cytometry analysis of relative ploidy levels. Systematics and Biodiversity 2004, 1:453-465.
33. Leadbeater B.S.C. Observations on the life history of the haptophycean alga Pleurochrysis-scherffelii with special reference to the micro anatomy of the different types of motile cells. Annals of Botany (London) 1971, 35:429-439.
34. Rowson J.D., Leadbeater B.S.C. Calcium carbonate deposition int he motile (Crystallolithus) phase of Coccolithus pelagicus (Prymnesiophyceae). British Phycological Journal 1986, 21:359-370.
35. Pienaar R.N. Ultrastructure and calcification of coccolithophores. Coccolithophores 1994, 13-37. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A. Winter, W.G. Siesser (Eds.).
36. Jordan R.W. Haptophyta 2012, els, Yamagata University, Yamagata, Japan.
37. Green J.C., Course P.A., Tarran G.A. The life-cycle of Emiliania huxleyi: a brief review and a study of relative ploidy levels analysed by flow cytometry. Journal of Marine Systems 1996, 9:33-44.
38. Hawkins E.K., Lee J.J., Fimiarz D.K. Colony formation and sexual morphogenesis in the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis sp. (Haptophyta) 1. Journal of Phycology 2011, 47:1344-1349.
39. Gayral P., Frensel J. Description sexuality and developmental cycle of a new coccolithophorid Prymnesiophyceae Pleurochrysis-pseudoroscoffensis new-species. Protistologica 1983, 19:245-262.
40. Nöel M., Kawachi M., Inouye I. Induced dimorphic life cycle of a coccolithophorid, Calyptrosphaera sphaeroidea (Prymnesiophyceae, Haptophyta). Journal of Phycology 2004, 40:112-129.
41. Rayns D.G. Alternation of generations in a coccolithophorid, Cricosphaera carterae (Braarud & Fagerl.) Braarud. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 1962, 42:481-484.
42. Leadbeater B.S.C. Preliminary observations on differences of scale morphology at various stages in the life cycle of Apistonema syracosphaer sensu von Stosch. British Phycological Journal 1970, 5:57-69.
43. Gayral P., Frensel J. New observations on 2 marine coccolithophoraceae Cricosphaera roscoffensis new combination and Hymenomonas globosa new combination. Phycologia 1976, 15:339-356.
44. Fresnel J., Billard C. Pleurochrysis placolithoides sp. nov. (Prymnesiophyceae), a new marine coccolithophorid with remarks on the status of criocolith-bearing species. British Phycological Journal 1991, 26:67-80.
45. Manton I. Further observations on the fine structure of Chrysochromulina chiton with special reference to the haptonema, peculiar Golgi structure and scale production. Journal of Cell Science 1967, 2:265-272.
46. Kawachi M., Inouye I. Functional roles of the haptonema and the spine scales in the feeding process of Chrysochromnlina spinifera(Fournier) Pienaar et Norris (Haptophyta, Prymnesiophyta). Phycologia 1995, 34:193-200.
47. Paasche E. Biology and physiology of coccolithophorids. Annual Review of Microbiology 1968, 22:71-86.
48. Fresnel J., Probert I. The ultrastructure and life cycle of the coastal coccolithophorid Ochrosphaera neapolitana (Prymnesiophyceae). European Journal of Phycology 2005, 40:105-122.
49. Hansen P.J., Hjorth M. Growth and grazing responses of Chrysochromulina ericina (Prymnesiophyceae): the role of irradiance, prey concentration and pH. Marine Biology 2002, 141:975-983.
50. Inouye I., Pienaar R.N. Ultrastructure of the flagellar apparatus in Pleurochrysis (Class Prymnesiophyceae). Protoplasm 1985, 125:24-35.
51. Sym S., Kawachi M. Ultrastructure of Calyptrosphaera radiata, sp nov (Prymnesiophyceae, Haptophyta). European Journal of Phycology 2000, 35:283-293.
52. Borowitzka M.A. Algal calcification. Oceanography and Marine Biology. Annual Review 1977, 15:189-223.
53. Sikes C.S., Roer R.D., Wilber K.M. Photosynthesis and coccolith formation: Inorganic carbon sources and net inorganic reaction of deposition. Limnology and Oceanography 1980, 25:248-261.
54. Brand L.E. Physiological ecology of marine coccolithophores. Coccolithophores 1994, 39-49. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A. Winter, W.G. Siesser (Eds.).
55. Moheimani N.R., Isdepsky A., Lisec J., Raes E., Borowitzka M.A. Coccolithophorid algae culture in closed photobioreactors. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 2011, 108:2078-2087.
56. N.R. Moheimani. The culture of coccolithophorid algae for carbon dioxide bioremediation [PhD Thesis]: Murdoch University, 2005.
57. Paasche E. A review of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae), with particular reference to growth, coccolith formation, and calcification-photosynthesis interactions. Phycologia 2002, 40:503-529.
58. Paasche E., Brubak S., Skattebol S., Young J.R., Green J.C. Growth and calcification in the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyceae) at low salinities. Phycologia 1996, 35:394-403.
59. Nielsen M.V. Photosynthetic characteristic of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae) exposed to elevated concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon. Journal of Phycology 1995, 31:715-719.
60. Johansen J.R., Doucette G.J., Barclay W.R., Bull J.D. The morphology and ecology of Pleurochrysis carterae var dentata var nov. (Prymnesiophyceae), a new coccolithophorid from an inland saline pond in New Mexico, USA. Phycologia 1988, 27:78-88.
61. de Vrind-de Jong E.W., Borman A., Thierry P., Westbroek P., Gruter, Kamerling J.P. Calcification in the coccolithophorids Emiliania huxleyi and Pleurochrysis carterae II. Biochemical aspects. Bioremediation in Lower Plants and Animals 1986, 205-217. Clarendon Press, Oxford. B.S.C. Leadbeater (Ed.).
62. de Vrind E.W., de Jong P.R., van Emburg P.R., de Vrind J.P.M. Mechanisms of calcification: Emiliania huxleyi as a model system. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 149-166. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
63. van der Wal P., de Jong L., Westbroek P., de Bruijn W.C. Calcification in the coccolithophorid alga Hymnemonas carterae. Calcification in Two species of coccolithophorid algae 1984, vol. 1:73-80. Geologisch Institute, Amsterdam.
64. 3 formation in coccolithophores. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. B: Comparative Biochemistry 2003, 136:743-754.
65. 2+-activated ATPase and its possible role in calcification of the coccolithophorid Cricosphaera roscoffensis var. haptonemofera (Haptophyta) (studies on the calcium carbonate deposition of algae V). Botanica Marina 1984, 27:363-369.
66. Linschooten C., van Bleijwijk J.D.L., van Emburg P.r., de Vrind J.p.m., Kempers E.S., Westbroek P., et al. Role of the light-dark cycle and medium composition on the production of coccoliths by Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyceae). Journal of Phycology 1991, 27:82-86.
67. Jeffrey S.W., Allen M.B. Pigments, growth and photosynthesis in cultures of two chrysomonads, Coccolithus huxleyi and a Hymenomonassp. Journal of General Microbiology 1964, 36:277-288.
68. Holligan P.M., Viollier M., Harbour D.S., Camus P., Champagne-Philippe M. Satellite and ship studies of coccolithophore production along a continental shelf edge. Nature 1983, 304:339-342.
69. Blackburn S.I., Cresswell G. A coccolithophorid bloom in Jervis Bay, Australia. Australian Journal of Marine & Freshwater Research 1993, 44:253-260.
70. Balch W.M., Kilpatrick K.A., Trees C.C. The 1991 coccolithophore bloom in the central North Atlantic, 1. Optical properties and factors affecting their distribution. Limnology and Oceanography 1996, 41:183-1669.
71. Reifel K.M., McCoy M.P., Tiffany M.A., Rocke T.E., Trees C.C., Barlow S.B., et al. Pleurochrysis pseudoroscoffensis (Prymnesiophyceae) blooms on the surface of the Salton Sea, California. Hydrobiologia 2001, 466:177-185.
72. Hulburt E.M. The diversity of phytoplanktonic populations in oceanic, coastal, and estuarine regions. Journal of Marine Research 1963, 21:81-93.
73. McIntyre A. Coccoliths as paleoclimatic indicators of Pleistocene glaciation. Science 1967, 158:1314-1317.
74. Buitenhuis E.T., de Baar H.J.W., Veldhuis M.J.W. Photosynthesis and calcification by Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae) as a function of inorganic carbon species. Journal of Phycology 1999, 35:949-959.
75. Purdie D.A., Finch M.S. Impact of a coccolithophorid bloom on dissolved carbon dioxide in seawater enclosures in a Norwegian Fjord. Sarsia 1994, 79:24-379.
76. Winter A., Jordan R.W., Roth P.H. Biogeography of living coccolithophores in ocean waters. Coccolithophores 1994, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A. Winter, W.G. Siesser (Eds.).
77. Miyamoto E., Watanabe F., Takenaka H., Nakano Y. Uptake and physiological function of vitamin B-12 in a photosynthetic unicellular coccolithophorid alga, Pleurochrysis carterae. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 2002, 66:195-198.
78. Parke M., Adams I. The motile (Crystallolithus hyalinus Gaarder and Markali) and non-phases in the life history of Coccolithus pelagicus (Wallich) Schiller. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 1960, 39:263-274.
79. Corstjens P., Araki Y., Gonzalez E.L. A coccolithophorid calcifying vesicle with a vacuolar-type ATPase proton pump: cloning and immunolocalization of the V-0 subunit c(1). Journal of Phycology 2001, 37:71-78.
80. Nimer N.A., Merret J.M. Calcification rate in Emiliania huxleyi Lohman in response to light, nitrate and availability of inorganic carbon. New Phytologist 1993, 123:673-677.
81. Paasche E. Roles of nitrogen and phosphorous in coccolith formation in Emiliania huxleyi. European Journal of Phycology 1998, 33:33-42.
82. Fritz J.J. Carbon fixation and coccolith detachment in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi in nitrate-limited cyclostats. Marine Biology 1999, 133:509-518.
83. Cortes M.Y., Bollmann J., Thierstein H.R. Coccolithophore ecology at the HOT station ALOHA, Hawaii. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 2001, 48:1957-1981.
84. Haidar A.T., Thierstein H.R. Coccolithophore dynamics off Bermuda (N. Atlantic). Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 2001, 48:1925-1956.
85. Shiraiawa Y. Physiological regulation of carbon fixation in the photosynthesis and calcification of coccolithophorids. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 2003, 136:775-783.
86. Brand L.E., Sunda W.G., Guillard R.R.L. Limitation of marine phytoplankton reproductive rates by zinc, manganese and iron. Limnology and Oceanography 1983, 28:1182-1198.
87. Brand L.E. Minimum iron requirements of marine plhytoplankton and the implications for the biogeochemical control of new production. Limnology and Oceanography 1991, 36.
88. McConnaughey T. Acid secreation, calcification, and photosynhtetic carbon concentrating mechanisms. Canadian Journal of Botany-Revue Canadienne de Botanique 1998, 76:1119-1126.
89. Jorgensen E.G., Steemann Nielsen E. Effect of filtrates from cultures of unicellular algae on the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Physiologia Plantarum 1961, 14:896-908.
90. Houdan A., Bonnard A., Fresnel J., Fouchard C., Billard C., Probert I. Toxicity of coastal coccolithophores (Prymnesiophyceae, Haptophyta). Journal of Plankton Research 2004, 26:875-883.
91. Reifel K., McCoy M., Tiffany M., Rocke T., Trees C., Barlow S., et al. Pleurochrysis pseudoroscoffensis (Prymnesiophyceae) blooms on the surface of the Salton Sea, California. Hydrobiologia 2001, 466:177-185.
92. Ehrlich H.L. Geomicrobiology its significance for geology. Earth-Science Reviews 1998, 45:45-60.
93. 2. Nature 2000, 407:311-312.
94. Faber W.W., Preisig H.R. Calcified structures and calcification in protists. Protoplasma 1994, 181:78-105.
95. Borowitzka M.A. Mechanisms in algal calcification. Progress of Phycological Research 1982, 1:137-177.
96. Brownlee C., Nimer N.A., Dong L.F., Merret J.M. Cellular regulation during calcification in Emiliania huxleyi. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 133-148. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
97. Stumm W., Morgan J.J. Aquatic chemistry: chemical equilibria and rates in natural waters 1996, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
98. Raven J.A. Putting C in phycology. European Journal of Phycology 1997, 32:319-333.
99. Fukuda S.-y., Suzuki I., Hama T., Shiraiwa Y. Compensatory response of the unicellular-calcifying alga Emiliania huxleyi (Coccolithophoridales, Haptophyta) to ocean acidification. Journal of Oceanography 2011, 67:17-25.
100. 2; and the effect of pH on growth and calcification of Pleurochrysis carterae and Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyta) in semicontinuous cultures. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 2011, 90:1399-1407.
101. Shiraiwa Y., Goyal A., Tolbert N.E. Alkalization of the medium by unicellular green algae during uptake dissolved inorganic carbon. Plant & Cell Physiology 1993, 34:649-657.
102. Moheimani N., Borowitzka M. The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds. Journal of Applied Phycology 2006, 18:703-712.
103. Grobbelaar J.U. Algal nutrition, mineral nutrition. Microalgal Culture 2004, 97-115. Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford. A. Richmond (Ed.).
104. Brewer P.g., Goldman J.C. Alkalinity changes generated by phytoplankton growth. Limnology and Oceanography 1976, 21:108-117.
105. 13C data from batch culture studies of Thalassiosira pseudonana and Emiliania huxleyi. Limnology and Oceanography 1988, 43:136-142.
106. Moroney J.V. Carbon concentrating mechanisms in aquatic photosynthetic organisms: a report on CCM 2001. Journal of Phycology 2001, 37:928-931.
107. Beardall J., Johnston A., Raven J. Environmental regulation of CO2-concentrating mechanisms in microalgae. Canadian Journal of Botany 1998, 76:1010-1017.
108. 2. Plant, Cell & Environment 1999, 22:741-755.
109. Sekino K., Shiraiawa Y. Accumulation and utilization of dissolved inorganic carbon by a marine unicellular coccolithophorid, E. huxleyi. Plant & Cell Physiology 1994, 35:353-361.
110. Paasche E., Brubak S. Enhanced calcification in the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyceae) under phosphorus limitation. Phycologia 1994, 33:324-330.
111. Dong L.F., Nimer N.A., Okus E., Merrett M.J. Dissolved inorganic carbon utilization in relation to calcite production in Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) Kamptner. New Phytologist 1993, 123:679-684.
112. 2. Limnology and Oceanography 1994, 39:458-462.
113. 2 concentrating mechanisms. Photosynthesis Research 2003, 77:83-94.
114. Anning T., Nimer N., Merrett M.J., Brownlee C. Costs and benefits of calcification in coccolithophorids. Journal of Marine Systems 1996, 9:45-56.
115. Raven J.A. Inorganic carbon concentrating mechanisms in relation to the biology of algae. Photosynthesis Research 2003, V77:155-171.
116. Kaplan A., Reinold L. CO2 Concentrating mechanism in photosynthetic microorganisms. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 1999, 50:539-570.
117. Huertas I.E., Bhatti S., Colman B. Inorganic carbon acquisition in two species of marine prymnesiophytes. European Journal of Phycology 2003, 38:181-189.
118. Sikes C.S., Wheeler A.P. Carbonic anhydrase and carbon fixation in coccolithophorids. Journal of Phycology 1982, 18:423-426.
119. Nimer N.A., Guan Q., Merrett M.J. Extra- and intra- cellular carbonic anhydrase in relation to culture age in a high-calcifying strain of Emiliania huxleyi. New Phytologist 1994, 126:601-607.
120. Nimer N.A., Merret J.M. Inorganic carbon transport in relation to culture age and inorganic carbon concentration in a high-calcifying strain of Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae). Journal of Phycology 1996, 32:813-818.
121. Herfort L., Thake B., Roberts J. Acquisition and use of bicarbonate by Emiliania huxleyi. New Phytologist 2002, 156:427-436.
122. Israel A.A., Gonzales E.L. Photosynthesis and inorganic carbon utilization in Pleurochrysis sp. (Haptophyta), a coccolithophorid alga. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1996, 137:243-250.
123. Paasche E. A tracer study of the inorganic carbon uptake during coccolith formation and photosynthesis in the coccolithophorid Coccolithus huxleyi. Physiologia Plantarum 1964, 3:1-82.
124. Shiraiawa Y., Sugimoto H., Satoh M. Regulation of intracellular calcification and algal growth by nutrient supply in coccolithophorids. Proceedings of the 8th international symposium on biomineralization (biomineralization: formation, diversity, evolution and application) 2003, 241-246. Tokai University Press, Kangawa. I. Kobayashi, H. Ozawa (Eds.).
125. Berry L., Taylor A.R., Lucken U.E., Ryan K.P., Brownlee C. Calcification and inorganic carbon acquisition in coccolithophores. Functional Plant Biology 2002, 29:2-3.
126. Borowitzka M.A. Carbonate calcification in algae initiation and control. Biomineralization: Chemical and Biochemical Perspective 1989, 63-94. VCH Verlag, Weinheim. S. Mann, J. Webb (Eds.).
127. Riebesell U., Zondervan I., Rost B., Tortell P.D., Zeebe R.E., Morel F.M.M. Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric CO2. Nature 2000, 407:364-367.
128. 2. Limnology and Oceanography 1997, 42:365-372.
129. Crenshaw M.A. Coccolith formation by two marine coccolithophorids 1964, Duke University.
130. Nimer N.A., Dixon G.K., Merrett M.J. Utilization of inorganic carbon by the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Lohman) Kamptner. New Phytologist 1991, 120:153-158.
131. Raven J.A. Nitrogen assimilation and transport in vascular land pklants in relation tintracellular pH regulation. New Phytologist 1980, 76:415-431.
132. Kingsley R.J., Norimitsu W. Ca-ATPase localization and inhibition in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck) (Coelenterata: Gorgonacea). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1985, 93:157-167.
133. Klaveness D. Emiliania huxleyi (Lohman) Hay and Mohler. 3. Minral deposition and the origin of the matrix during coccolith formation. Protistologica 1976, 12:217-224.
134. Okazaki M. Some enzymatic properties of Ca2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase from calcareous marine alga, Serraticardia maxima and its distribution in marine algae. Botanica Marina 1977, 20:347-354.
135. van der Wal P., de Brujin W.C. Calcification in the coccolithophorid alga Hymnemonas carterae. Environmental Biogeochemistry 1983, 35:251-258.
136. Jeffrey S.W., Wright S.W. Photosynthetic pigments in the Haptophyta. Chemicals from Microalgae 1999, 111-132. Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia. Z. Cohen (Ed.).
137. Brand L.E., Guillard R.R.L. The effects of continuous light and intensity on the reproduction rates of twenty-two species of marine phytoplankton. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1981, 50:119-132.
138. Buma A.G.J., van Oijen T., van de Poll W., Veldhuis M.J.W., Gieskes W.W.C. The sensitivity of Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae) to ultraviolet-b radiation. Journal of Phycology 2000, 36:296-303.
139. Gieskes W.W.C., Buma A.G.J. UV damage to plant life in a photobiologically dynamic environment: the case of marine phytoplankton. Plant Ecology 1997, 128:17-25.
140. Voss K.J., Balch W.M., Kilpatrick K.A. Scattering and attenuation properties of Emiliania huxleyi cells and their detached coccoliths. Limnology and Oceanography 1998, 43:870-876.
141. Young J.R., Brown P.R., Burnett J.A. Paleontological perspectives. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 446. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. 51 ed. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
142. Paasche E. Adjustment to light and dark rates of coccolith formation. Physiologia Plantarum 1966, 19:271-278.
143. Sekino K., Shiraiawa Y. Evidence for the involvement of mitochondrial respiration in calcification in a marine coccolithophorid, Emiliania huxleyi. Plant & Cell Physiology 1996, 37:1030-1033.
144. Balch W., Fritz J., Fernandez E. Decoupling of calcification and photosynthesis in the coccolithophore Emiiania huxleyi under steady-state light-limited growth. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1996, 142:87-97.
145. van der Wal P., de Vind J.P.M., de Vrind-de Jong E.W., Borman A. Incompleteness of the coccosphere as a possible stimulus for coccolith formation in Pleurochrysis carterae (Prymnesiophyceae). Journal of Phycology 1987, 23:218-221.
146. Dodd J.C. Elements of pond design and construction. CRC Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture 1986, 265-284. CRC Press, Inc. A. Richmond (Ed.).
147. Borowitzka M., Moheimani N. Sustainable biofuels from algae. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2010, 1-13. 10.1007/s11027-010-9271-9.
148. Larkum A.W.D. Marine primary productivity. Marine Botany: An Australasian Perspective 1981, 370-385. Longman Cheshire, Melbourne. M.N. Clayton, R.J. King (Eds.).
149. Leith H. Primary production of the major vegetation units of the world. Primary Productivity of the Biosphere 1975, Springer-Verlag, New York. H. Leith, R.H. Whittacker (Eds.).
150. Geider R.J., Delucia E.H., Falkowski P., Finzi A., Grime P., Kana J.T.M., La Roche J., Long S.P., Osborne B.A., Platt T., Prentice I.C., Raven J.A., Schlesinger W.H., Smetacek V., Stuart V., Sathyendranath S., Thomas R.B., Vogelmann T.C., Williams P., Woodward F.I. Primary productivity of planet earth: biological determinants and physical constraints in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Global Change Biology 2001, 7:849-882.
151. Inouye I., Chihara M. Laboratory culture and taxonomy of Hymenomonas-coronata and Ochrosphaera-verrucosa class prymnesiophyceae from the Northwest Pacific. Botanical Magazine Tokyo 1980, 93:195-208.
152. Soeder C.J. The scope of microalgae for food and feed. Algae Biomass 1980, 9-20. Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. G. Shelef, C.J. Soeder (Eds.).
153. Oswald W.J. Algal production-problems, acheivements and potential. Algae Biomass 1980, 1-9. Elsevier/North-Holand Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. G. Shelef, C.J. Soeder (Eds.).
154. Benemann J.R., Tillett D.M., Weissman J.C. Microalgae biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology 1987, 5:47-53.
155. Borowitzka M.A. Algal biotechnology products and processes-matching science and economics. Journal of Applied Phycology 1992, 4:267-279.
156. Moheimani N.R., Borowitzka M.A. Limits to productivity of the alga Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) grown in outdoor raceway ponds. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 2006, 96:27-36.
157. Fulks W., Main K.L. Part I: background review the design and operation of commercial-scale live feeds production systems. Rotifer and Microalgae Culture Systems 1991, 2-46. The Oceanic Institute Makapuu Point, Honolulu. W. Fulks, K.L. Main (Eds.).
158. Lee Y.K., Shen H. Basic culturing techniques. Microalgal Culture 2004, 40-56. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford. A. Richmond (Ed.).
159. Borowitzka M.A. Culturing microalgae in outdoor ponds. Algal Culturing Techniques 2005, 205-217. Academic Press, London. A. Anderson (Ed.).
160. Borowitzka M.A. Microalgae for aquaculture: opportunities and constraints. Journal of Applied Phycology 1997, 9:393-401.
161. Sukenik A., Levy R.S., Levy Y., Falkowski P.G., Dubinsky Z. Optimizing algal biomass production in an outdoor pond: a simulation model. Journal of Applied Phycology 1991, 3:191-201.
162. Apt K.E., Behrens P.W. Commercial developments in microalgal biotechnology. Journal of Phycology 1999, 35:215-226.
163. Valderrama G., Cardenas A., Markovits A. On the economics of Spirulina production in Chile with details on drag-board mixing in shallow ponds. Hydrobiologia 1987, 151(152):71-74.
164. Barclay W.R., Terry K.L., Nagle N.J., Weissman J.C., Goebel R.P. Potential of new strains of marine and inland saline-adapted microalgae for aquaculture. Journal World of Aquatic Society 1987, 18:218-228.
165. Borowitzka L.J. Commercial pigment from algae. The First Asia-Pacific Conference on Algal Biotechnology 1994, 82-84. Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur. P.S. Moi, L.Y. Kun, M.A. Borowitzka, B.A. Whitton (Eds.).
166. Borowitzka M.A. Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. Journal of Biotechnology 1999, 70:313-321.
167. Volkman J.K., Smith D.J., Eglinton G., Forsberg T.E.V., Corner E.D.S. Sterol and fatty acid composition of four marine haptophycean algae. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 1981, 61:509-527.
168. Borowitzka M.A., Borowitzka L.J. Dunaliella. Microalgal Biotechnology 1988, 27-58. Cambridge University Press, Sydney. M.A. Borowitzka, L.J. Borowitzka (Eds.).
169. Weissman J.C., Goebel R.P. Design and analysis of microalgal pond systems for purpose of producing fuel 1987, 140. U.S. Department of Energy. S.E.R. Institute (Ed.).
170. Sheehan J., Dunahay T., Benemann J., Roessler P. A look back at the U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program-biodiesel from algae 1998, 294. U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fuels Development.
171. Ginzburg B. Liquid fuel (oil) from halophilic algae: a renewable source of non-polluting energy. Renal Energy 1993, 3:249-252.
172. Wu Q., Dai J., Shiraiawa Y., Sheng G., Fu J. A renewable energy source-hydrocarbon gases resulting from pyrolysis of the marine nonoplanktonic alga Emiliania huxleyi. Journal of Applied Phycology 1999, 11:137-142.
173. Richmond A. Microalgal biotechnology at the turn of the millennium: a personal view. Journal of Applied Phycology 2000, 12:441-451.
174. Borowitzka M.A. Closed algal photobioreactors: design considerations for large-scale systems. Journal of Marine Biotechnology 1996, 4:185-191.
175. Weisman J.C., Noue J. Design and operation of an outdoor microalgae test facility: large-scale system results. Nature Renal Energy Laboratory 1995, 32-56.
176. Diesendorf M. Australia's Polluting Power: Coal-fired Electricity and Its Impact on Global Warming 2003, 12. WWF Australia, Sydney.
177. de Boer K., Moheimani N., Borowitzka M., Bahri P. Extraction and conversion pathways for microalgae to biodiesel: a review focused on energy consumption. Journal of Applied Phycology 2012, 1-18. 10.1007/s10811-012-9835-z.
178. RET Australian Petroleum Statistics 2012, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism Canberra.
179. IPCC Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, 104. (Geneva, Switzerland). R.K. Pachauri, A. Reisinger (Eds.).
180. Casareto B.E., Niraula M.P., Fujimura H., Suzuki Y. Effects of carbon dioxide on the coccolithophorid Pleurochrysis carterae in incubation experiments. Aquatic Biology 2009, 7:59-70.
181. Hutchins D.A. Oceanography: forecasting the rain ratio. Nature 2011, 476:41-42.
182. Aresta N., Tommasi I., Galatola M. Potential of cofiring with biomass in Italy. Energy Conversion and Management 1997, 38:S557-S562.
183. Fox R.D. Spirulina, real aid to development. Hydrobiologia 1987, 15(152):95-97.
184. Clement G.C., Giddey C., Menzi R. Amino acid composition and nutritive value of alga Spirulina maxima. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 1967, 18:497-501.
185. Princen L.H., Rothfus J.A. Development of new crops for raw materials for industry. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 1984, 61:281-289.
186. Rattray J.B.M. Biotechnology and the fats and oil industry. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 1984, 61:1701-1712.
187. Yongmanitchai W., Ward O.P. Growth of omega-3 fatty acid production by Pheadactylum tricornutum under different culture conditions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1991, 57:125-419.
188. Grima E., Medina A.R., Gimenez G. Recovery of algal PUFAs. Chemical from Microalgae 1999, 108-144. Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia. Z. Cohen (Ed.).
189. Hannson L., Dostalek M. Lipid formation by Cryptococcus albidus in nitrogen-limited and carbon-limited chemostat cultures. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 1986, 24:187-192.
190. Turcotte G., Kosaric N. Lipid biosynthesis in oleaginous yeasts. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology 1989, 40:73-92.
191. 20-polyunsaturated fatty acids for biotechnological use. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 1991, 35:421-430.
192. Nevenzel J.C. Biogenic hydrocarbons of marine organisms. Marine Biogenic Lipids, Fats and Oils 1989, vol. I:3-72. CRC Press, Florida.
193. Knapp H.R. Omega-3 fatty acids, endogenous postaglandins and blood pressure regulation in humans. Nutrition Review 1989, 47:301-313.
194. Kyle D., Behrens P., Bingham S., Arnett K., Leiberman D. Microalgae as a source of EPA-containing oils. World Conference on Biotechnology for Fats and Oil Chemistry 1990, 117-122. American Oil Chemists Society, Champaign. T.H. Applewhite (Ed.).
195. Fernandez E., Balch W.M., Maranon E., Holligan P.M. High rates of lipid biosynthesis in cultured, mesocosm and coastal populations of the coccolithophorids Emiliania huxleyi. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1994, 114:13-22.
196. Liu C.P., Lin L.P. Ultrastructural study and lipid formation of Isochrysis sp. CCMP1324. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica 2001, 42:207-214.
197. Murphy W.L., Messersmith P.B. Compartmental control of mineral formation: adaptation of a biomineralization strategy for biomedical use. Polyhedron 2000, 19:357-363.
198. 2 concentration on lipid composition and carbon isotope fractionation in Emiliania huxleyi. Geochemisty and Cosmology Acta 2000, 64:4179-4192.
199. Rontani J.F., Marchand D., Volkman J.K. NaBH4 reduction of alkenones to the corresponding alkenols: a useful tool for their characterisation in natural samples. Organ Geochemistry 2001, 32:1329-1341.
200. Conte M.H., Volkman J.K., Eglinton G. Lipid biomarkers of the haptophyta. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 351-377. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
201. Ghosh P., Paterson G.W., Wilfors G.H. Sterols of some marine Prymnesiophyceae. Journal of Phycology 1996, 34:511-514.
202. 39) alkenones in the Prymnesiophyceae. Distribution of alkenones and other lipids and their taxonomic significance. British Phycological Journal 1984, 19:203-216.
203. Takenaka H., Yamaguchi Y., Teramato S., Tanaka N., Hori M., Seki H., et al. Evaluation of the mutagenic properties of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyceae) as a potential human food supplement. Journal of Applied Phycology 1996, 8:1-3.
204. Takenaka H., Yamaguchi Y., Teramato S., Tanaka N., Hori M., Seki H., et al. Safety evaluation of Pleurochrysis carterae as a potential food supplement. Journal of Marine Biotechnology 1996, 3:274-277.
205. Miyamoto E., Watanabe F., Ebara S., Takenaka S., Takenaka H., Yamaguchi Y., et al. Characterization of a vitamin B-12 compound from unicellular coccolithophorid alga (Pleurochrysis carterae). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2001, 49:3486-3489.
206. Stupp S.I., Braun P.V. Molecular manipulation of microstructures: biomaterials, ceramics, and semiconductors. Science 1997, 277:1242-1248.
207. Rames A., Williams D.F. Relationship between chemotaxis and complement activation by ceramic biomaterials. Biomaterials 1991, 12:661-667.
208. Piatelli A., Podda G., Scarano A. Clinical and histological results in alveolar ridge enlargement using coralline calcium carbonate. Biomaterials 1997, 18. (623-7w).
209. Laguna R., Romo J., Read B.A., Wahlund T.M. Induction of phase variation events in the life cycle of the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi. Applied and Environment Microbiology 2001, 67:3824-3831.
210. Walsh D., Mann S. Fabrication of hollow porous shells of calcium carbonate from self-organizing media. Nature 1995, 377:320-322.
211. Van Der Wal P., De Long L., Westbroek P., De Bruijn W.C. Calcification in the Coccolithophorid Alga Hymenomonas-Carterae 1983, P251-P258. R. Hallberg (Ed.).
212. Outka D.E., Williams D.C. Sequential coccolith morphogensis in Hymnemonas carterae. The Journal of Protozoology 1971, 18:285-297.